{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T05:46:54Z","timestamp":1793684814919,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62472107"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62472107"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62472107"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62472107"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province, China","award":["2023A1515011477"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023A1515011477"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Project of Zhanjiang City","award":["2025B01061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025B01061"]}]},{"name":"University-level College Students\u2019 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program of Guangdong Ocean University","award":["CXXL2026095"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXXL2026095"]}]},{"award":["CXXL2026095"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXXL2026095"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0462wa640","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Object detection in UAV aerial images remains fundamentally constrained by extremely small object scales, strong background interference, and progressive structural information degradation along the feature extraction pipeline. Current small-object detection methods suffer from two fundamental deficiencies rooted in their convolutional feature extraction pipelines: the smoothing effect of strided convolutions in early layers, which attenuates fine-grained details before backbone processing, and the feature overwriting phenomenon, where sequential transformations progressively erase structural information from earlier layers. We propose PFE-Det (Progressive Feature Evolution Detector), built upon the DEIM framework and constructing a continuous optimization pathway across three stages. A Feature Adaptive Enhancement Network (FAENet) is adopted as a front-end preprocessor to decouple high- and low-frequency components via a Laplacian pyramid at the input stage, mitigating early-layer smoothing at the input. A Multi-Receptive-Field Adaptive Fusion Module (MFAM) is designed to reorganize single-path features into structure-retaining and progressive enhancement paths and is further coupled with hierarchical receptive-field modeling, suppressing feature overwriting through multi-scale context modeling. A Multi-Path Gated State Space Modeling Block (MG-SSM Block) couples HSM-SSD-based long-range dependency extraction with Convolutional Gated Linear Units (CGLU) for adaptive feature selection in the encoder. Experiments on VisDrone2019 demonstrate an AP of 0.225 and an APs of 0.134, yielding a 13.5% relative improvement in small-object precision over the baseline. Cross-dataset evaluations on DIOR and UAVVaste, each under independent training and testing, further support the effectiveness of progressive feature evolution for UAV small-object detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26155003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T15:52:30Z","timestamp":1786031550000},"page":"5003","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["PFE-Det: Progressive Feature Evolution for Small Object Detection in UAV Aerial Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1927-380X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aolin","family":"Fang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mathematics and Computer Science, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9334-3482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongzi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mathematics and Computer Science, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaotong","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liuyang","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7454-5665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengshi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9808-3419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daoheng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3389-6689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiuchun","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronics and Information Engineering, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48572","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2909530","article-title":"Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs): A survey on civil applications and key research challenges","volume":"7","author":"Shakhatreh","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7380","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2021.3119563","article-title":"Detection and tracking meet drones challenge","volume":"44","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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