{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T14:08:15Z","timestamp":1787753295601,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]],"date-time":"2026-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Nuclear Security Agency","award":["89233123SNA000426"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["89233123SNA000426"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Capturing reliable hyperspectral imager data at a meaningful frame rate for explosions and other fast-changing scenes is not possible in the mid-wave infrared region under traditional sensor operating configurations and processing techniques, which typically have frame rates on the order of 0.5\u20132.0 Hz. To combat these shortcomings, the scene acquisition parameters were tailored for explosions and a new method for processing optical signatures of fast transient scenes with Fourier-transform infrared hyperspectral imagers was developed. For this technique, the instrument was first configured to collect asymmetric interferograms while optimizing the number of measurement points on the short side of the interferogram. Additionally, pixel-wise zero path distance offset and phase corrections were applied to the interferograms, a reduced spectral resolution of 8 cm\u22121 was selected, and the window size was narrowed to 32 \u00d7 64 pixels while using a lens with a wide field of view. The smooth offset correction for scene change artifacts was then applied in post-processing to address any remaining artifacts in the Fourier-transformed spectra. These procedures yielded a 29\u00d7 increase in frame rate and significant improvements in spectra fidelity. This work makes reliable field calibrations and measurements of explosions with Fourier-transform infrared hyperspectral imagers more achievable than before.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26165033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T09:24:53Z","timestamp":1786353893000},"page":"5033","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Enhancing a Mid-Wave Infrared Fourier Transform Hyperspectral Imager for Explosions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8458-3885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James T.","family":"Stofel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Technical Intelligence Studies and Research, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2950 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH 45433, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5537-8743","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kody A.","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Technical Intelligence Studies and Research, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2950 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH 45433, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1200-4132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Larivi\u00e8re-Bastien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Telops, Inc., 100-2600 Avenue St Jean Baptiste, Qu\u00e9bec City, QC G2E 6J5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0112-0667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anthony L.","family":"Franz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Technical Intelligence Studies and Research, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2950 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH 45433, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4081-0326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael L.","family":"Dexter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Technical Intelligence Studies and Research, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2950 Hobson Way, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, OH 45433, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-021-10018-y","article-title":"A review of deep learning used in the hyperspectral image analysis for agriculture","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ad\u00e3o, T., Hru\u0161ka, J., P\u00e1dua, L., Bessa, J., Peres, E., Morais, R., and Sousa, J.J. (2017). Hyperspectral imaging: A review on UAV-based sensors, data processing and applications for agriculture and forestry. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9111110"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, B., Dao, P.D., Liu, J., He, Y., and Shang, J. (2020). Recent advances of hyperspectral imaging technology and applications in agriculture. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12162659"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031501","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.15.031501","article-title":"Hyperspectral remote sensing in lithological mapping, mineral exploration, and environmental geology: An updated review","volume":"15","author":"Peyghambari","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"879","article-title":"Hyperspectral remote sensing and geological applications","volume":"108","author":"Ramakrishnan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1109\/36.934082","article-title":"Automated differentiation of urban surfaces based on airborne hyperspectral imagery","volume":"39","author":"Roessner","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2012.01.001","article-title":"Urban structure type characterization using hyperspectral remote sensing and height information","volume":"105","author":"Heiden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Bagby, W.F. (2001). Spectral and Temporal Characterization of High-Temperature Events. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129156408005102","article-title":"The phenomenology of high explosive fireballs from fielded spectroscopic and imaging sensors for event classification","volume":"18","author":"Gross","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. High Speed Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"226","article-title":"High speed spectral measurements of IED detonation fireballs","volume":"Volume 7665","author":"Gordon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives (CBRNE) Sensing XI"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Orson, J.A. (2000). Collection of Detonation Signatures and Characterization of Spectral Features. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Dills, A.N. (2005). Classification of Battlespace Detonations from Temporally Resolved Multi-Band Imagery and Mid-Infrared Spectra. [Ph.D. Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steward, B. (2011). Characterization and Discrimination of Large Caliber Gun Blast and Flash Signatures. [Ph.D. Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology].","DOI":"10.1117\/12.920583"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2003). Time-resolved Fourier transform spectroscopy of pulsed discharge products. Chem. Phys. Lett., 369, 293\u2013298.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-2614(02)02017-1"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jms.2005.02.007","article-title":"Time-resolved Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: Application to pulsed discharges","volume":"232","author":"Kawaguchi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.35.002857","article-title":"Fast Time-Resolved Fourier-Transform Spectroscopy for the Study of Transient Chemical Reactions","volume":"35","author":"Carere","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Gupta, V. (2022). Chapter 14\u2014Step-scan FTIR techniques for investigations of spectra and dynamics of transient species in gaseous chemical reactions. Molecular and Laser Spectroscopy, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.54.000141","article-title":"Hyperspectral quantitative imaging of gas sources in the mid-infrared","volume":"54","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3492094","article-title":"Microsecond time-resolved Fourier transform infrared analytics in a low pressure glow discharge reactor","volume":"81","author":"Rivallan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3137","DOI":"10.1021\/jp211772d","article-title":"Time-Resolved Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of He\/CH4 in a Positive Column Discharge","volume":"116","author":"Ferus","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bell, R.J. (1972). Introductory Fourier Transform Spectroscopy, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-085150-8.50006-1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffiths, P.R., and de Haseth, J.A. (2007). Signal-To-Noise Ratio. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. [2nd ed.]. Chapter 7.","DOI":"10.1002\/047010631X"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.8.000497","article-title":"Interferometry and grating spectroscopy: An introductory survey","volume":"8","author":"Jacquinot","year":"1969","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffiths, P.R., and de Haseth, J.A. (2007). Theoretical Background. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. [2nd ed.]. Chapter 2.","DOI":"10.1002\/047010631X"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eismann, M.T. (2012). Hyperspectral Remote Sensing, SPIE Press.","DOI":"10.1117\/3.899758"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Mertz, L. (1965). Transformations in Optics, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-0891(67)90026-7","article-title":"Auxiliary computation for Fourier spectrometry","volume":"7","author":"Mertz","year":"1967","journal-title":"Infrared Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffiths, P.R., and de Haseth, J.A. (2007). Fourier Transforms. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. [2nd ed.]. Chapter 4.","DOI":"10.1002\/047010631X"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, K., Dexter, M., Akers, B., and Franz, A. (2026). Proposed Methodology for Correcting Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Field-of-View Scene-Change Artifects. Remote Sens., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs18020317"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, K., Dexter, M., Akers, B., and Franz, A. (2026). Temperature Determination and Scene Change Artifact Mititgation when using Fourier-Transform Spectroscopy on Targets with Time Varying Temperature. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26082512"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"CI Systems Ltd. (2026, May 04). SR-800N-HT Brochure. Available online: https:\/\/ci-systems.com."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.2307\/2532051","article-title":"A Concordance Correlation Coefficient to Evaluate Reproducibility","volume":"45","author":"Lin","year":"1989","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satopaa, V., Albrecht, J., Irwin, D., and Raghavan, B. (2011, January 20\u201324). Finding a \u201cKneedle\u201d in a Haystack: Detecting Knee Points in System Behavior. Proceedings of the 2011 31st International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, Minneapolis, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCSW.2011.20"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.softx.2025.102161","article-title":"Kneeliverse: A universal knee-detection library for performance curves","volume":"30","author":"Antunes","year":"2025","journal-title":"SoftwareX"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.56.000059","article-title":"Correction of Asymmetric Interferograms Obtained in Fourier Spectroscopy","volume":"56","author":"Forman","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"38","article-title":"Temporally resolved infrared spectra from the detonation of advanced munitions","volume":"Volume 7330","author":"Gordon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Sensors and Systems for Space Applications III"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Gordon, J.M. (2011). Shock Wave Dynamics of Novel Aluminized Detonations and Empirical Model for Temperature Evolution from Post Detonation Combustion Fireballs. [Ph.D. Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021106","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.53.2.021106","article-title":"Temperature dynamics of aluminized cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine fireballs for event classification","volume":"53","author":"Gordon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/S1350-4495(02)00188-3","article-title":"Infrared signatures from bomb detonations","volume":"44","author":"Orson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Gross, K.C. (2007). Phenomenological Model for Infrared Emissions from High-Explosive Detonation Fireballs. [Ph.D. Thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Fluke Corporation (2026, May 04). 4180\/4181 Precision Calibrator Operators Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.fluke.com."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"HGH Infrared Systems Incorporated (2026, May 04). Blackbody Series Catalogue. Available online: https:\/\/hgh-infrared.com."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68780B","DOI":"10.1117\/12.765259","article-title":"A first principles atmospheric propagation and characterization tool: The laser environmental effects definition and reference (LEEDR)","volume":"Volume 6878","author":"Korotkova","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Atmospheric Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves II"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akhavan, J. (2022). The Chemistry of Explosives, Royal Society of Chemistry. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1039\/9781839168802"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Cooper, P.W. (1996). Explosives Engineering, John Wiley & Sons. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Army Materiel Command (1972). Engineering Design Handbook: Principles of Explosive Behavior."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/16\/5033\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T09:35:27Z","timestamp":1786354527000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/16\/5033"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s26165033"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26165033","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]]}}}