{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T08:27:06Z","timestamp":1787128026945,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786924800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001802","name":"University of Canberra","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["3281612UC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3281612UC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001802","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["3281612UC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3281612UC"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04s1nv328","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lower-limb rehabilitation exoskeletons have the potential to improve gait recovery after stroke by providing intensive and repetitive training. However, conventional control strategies often rely on fixed control parameters and exhibit limited adaptability to patient-specific characteristics, sensor noise, and dynamic uncertainties. This paper proposes an adaptive control framework that combines deep reinforcement learning (RL) with model-based impedance control for personalised lower-limb exoskeleton assistance. Patient-specific biological parameters are incorporated into the simulation environment and reward formulation to improve adaptability and robustness. Three state-of-the-art deep RL algorithms, Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG), Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3), and Soft Actor-Critic (SAC), are evaluated in a continuous control environment under varying signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) conditions ranging from 5 dB to noise-free conditions. Results demonstrate that TD3 achieves the most stable learning performance, obtaining a mean reward of \u2212354.24 under noise-free conditions, while DDPG provides the highest joint-angle tracking accuracy with an RMSE of 0.0369 rad. SAC exhibits superior robustness in noisy environments, achieving the highest learning ratio of 0.51 at 5 dB SNR. Furthermore, the proposed personalised framework reduces tracking errors by up to 27% compared with non-personalised baseline approaches. The findings indicate that integrating patient-specific information with RL-based adaptive control can significantly enhance robustness, tracking performance, and personalisation in exoskeleton-assisted gait rehabilitation, providing a promising direction for future intelligent rehabilitation systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26165217","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T16:35:08Z","timestamp":1786984508000},"page":"5217","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Adaptive Control of Lower-Limb Assistive Exoskeleton for Rehabilitation Using Deep Reinforcement Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3385-549X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Foroutannia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5620-3232","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masoud","family":"Mohammadian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0141-8973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kumudu","family":"Munasinghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.122.040073","article-title":"Projected global trends in ischemic stroke incidence, deaths and disability-adjusted life years from 2020 to 2030","volume":"54","author":"Pu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/17474930241308142","article-title":"World Stroke Organization: Global stroke fact sheet 2025","volume":"20","author":"Feigin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. 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