{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T10:40:29Z","timestamp":1787568029066,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NSF EPSCoR Center for the Advancement of Wearable Technologies","award":["OIA-1849243"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OIA-1849243"]}]},{"name":"CAHSI\u2013Google Institutional Research Program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Highly automated vehicles often rely on takeover requests (TORs) that lack contextual transparency, treat drivers as passive fallbacks, and lead to poor situational awareness. To address this challenge, this study presents the Empowering Language Interaction (ELI) framework, a conversational interface powered by a large language model that supports bidirectional negotiation and collaborative human\u2013AI teamwork. Using the CARLA driving simulator, 28 participants compared ELI with a conventional TOR baseline in both urban and peri-urban driving scenarios. The study employed a multidimensional evaluation approach, integrating telemetry data on driving performance with continuous monitoring of physiological indicators (electrocardiogram and electrodermal activity) and subjective questionnaires to assess driver trust and engagement. Results indicated that ELI sustained continuous driver engagement and improved the subjective comprehension of the vehicle\u2019s state. Physiologically, the conversational interface maintained active cognitive load, preventing the abrupt autonomic spikes characteristic of traditional takeover requests. Furthermore, ELI outperformed the TOR baseline in safety metrics by reducing out-of-lane events and maintaining greater safety margins. Conversational interaction has shown potential to transform drivers from passive supervisors into active teammates, improving joint decision-making without inducing over-reliance on the automated system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26165228","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T13:11:57Z","timestamp":1787058717000},"page":"5228","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["ELI: A Conversational LLM-Based Interface for Human\u2013AI Driving Teams and Its Impact on Performance and Driver Status"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2157-9082","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evelyn","family":"Vasquez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00680, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7213-5031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alanis","family":"Negroni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00680, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3508-584X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan","family":"Pe\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00680, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5602-950X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iyadunni","family":"Adenuga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Technology, The Dorothy and George Hennings College of Science, Mathematics and Technology, Kean University, Union, NJ 07083, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4489-4280","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan","family":"Medina-Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, PR 00680, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"SAE International (2016). 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