{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T05:22:46Z","timestamp":1787376166733,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61202479"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61202479"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["61202479"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61202479"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the development of smart classrooms and digital learning platforms, multimodal learning behavior data provide a new sensing basis for understanding students\u2019 cognitive states and psychological risk warnings. However, existing educational data mining methods mainly focus on performance prediction, dropout warning, or surface-level emotion recognition, while continuous and interpretable modeling of deeper cognitive biases and related psychological risks remains insufficient. To address this issue, we propose MLBS-Net, a multimodal learning behavior sensing network for teaching feedback that jointly models students\u2019 textual expressions, behavioral sequences, classroom interactions, and psychological auxiliary signals. MLBS-Net integrates theory-guided textual cognitive bias encoding, temporal behavioral state modeling, and reliability-aware cross-modal fusion to capture psychologically interpretable cognitive patterns, characterize dynamic learning-state changes, and adaptively integrate multimodal information according to data quality and task contribution while providing interpretable feedback for teachers. Experimental results show that MLBS-Net achieves a Macro-F1 of 0.855 for cognitive bias recognition and an AUC of 0.891 for psychological risk warning, outperforming traditional machine learning, unimodal deep learning, and standard multimodal methods. Ablation results further support the effectiveness of theory-guided semantic encoding, temporal behavioral modeling, reliability estimation, and multitask learning. These findings demonstrate that MLBS-Net can jointly characterize cognitive biases and potential psychological risks from multisource learning behaviors, providing a feasible approach for learning-state sensing, risk warning, and interpretable teaching support in smart education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26165286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T16:05:19Z","timestamp":1787241919000},"page":"5286","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reliability-Aware Cross-Modal Learning Behavior Sensing for Student Cognitive Bias Recognition and Teaching-Oriented Psychological Risk Warning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Luo","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenlu","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moxian","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M. 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