{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T12:24:17Z","timestamp":1787315057200,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Helicopter Team, Unmanned System Research Institute, Beihang University"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00wk2mp56","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ammonia, a toxic and volatile pollutant commonly found in chemical industrial environments, requires reliable real-time detection to ensure industrial safety and effective environmental monitoring. Conventional gas sensors typically operate at elevated temperatures, resulting in high power consumption. Moreover, pure metal oxides and conductive polymers often suffer from significant aggregation and exhibit suboptimal sensing performance under ambient conditions, limiting their practical applications. In this study, hierarchical porous V2O5\/PANI composites were synthesized via a straightforward one-step coprecipitation method combined with in situ polymerization. The interlaced architecture of polyaniline (PANI) and vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) effectively reduces structural aggregation and increases the availability of surface active sites. Furthermore, the synergistic interaction at the bi-phase interface significantly enhances charge carrier transport, leading to improved ammonia-sensing capabilities at room temperature. Notably, the composite containing 20% V2O5 demonstrated superior response, selectivity, and reproducibility toward 10 ppm NH3. Due to its simple fabrication process and room-temperature operation without external heating, the developed V2O5\/PANI composite sensor holds significant potential for practical applications in low-concentration ammonia detection under ambient conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26165300","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T11:37:34Z","timestamp":1787312254000},"page":"5300","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hierarchically Structured V2O5\/PANI Heterostructures for Room-Temperature Ammonia Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8313-9865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunmei","family":"Shangguan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Unmanned System, Bei Hang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Unmanned System, Bei Hang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7166-2069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Unmanned System, Bei Hang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Opto-Electronics Engineering, Beijing Information Science and Technology University, Beijing 100192, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiao","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Aviation, Bei Hang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhenchen","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Unmanned System, Bei Hang University, Beijing 100191, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.06.034","article-title":"Ammonia gas sensors: A comprehensive review","volume":"204","author":"Kwak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-022-08072-0","article-title":"Gas sensors and factors influencing sensing mechanism with a special focus on MOS sensors","volume":"58","author":"Nadargi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, S., Cao, S., Huang, Z., Yang, D., and Zhang, G. (2021). Improving Gas-Sensing Performance Based on MOS Nanomaterials: A Review. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14154263"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-022-00956-9","article-title":"Recent Progress on Flexible Room-Temperature Gas Sensors Based on Metal Oxide Semiconductor","volume":"14","author":"Ou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/10408430490888977","article-title":"Oxide Materials for Development of Integrated Gas Sensors\u2014A Comprehensive Review","volume":"29","author":"Eranna","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1039\/b617710g","article-title":"Surface studies of gas sensing metal oxides","volume":"9","author":"Batzill","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1039\/D6LF00024J","article-title":"Materials design strategies for semiconducting metal-oxide chemiresistive gas sensors: A review","volume":"3","author":"Tian","year":"2026","journal-title":"RSC Appl. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2314686","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202314686","article-title":"Defect Engineering in Nanocatalysts: From Design and Synthesis to Applications","volume":"34","author":"Muhammad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9903","DOI":"10.3390\/s91209903","article-title":"Gas Sensors Based on Semiconducting Metal Oxide One-Dimensional Nanostructures","volume":"9","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1039\/C0NR00560F","article-title":"Nanosensors: Towards morphological control of gas sensing activity. SnO2, In2O3, ZnO and WO3 case studies","volume":"3","author":"Gurlo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-022-00410-1","article-title":"Heteronanostructural metal oxide-based gas microsensors","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2025.116818","article-title":"MOS based gas sensor in detection of volatile organic compounds: A review","volume":"393","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.09.047","article-title":"Metal oxide-based gas sensor research: How to?","volume":"121","author":"Barsan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143504","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4917528","article-title":"Atomic origin of high-temperature electron trapping in metal-oxide-semiconductor devices","volume":"106","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amiri, V., Roshan, H., Mirzaei, A., and Sheikhi, M.H. (2020). A Review of Nanostructured Resistive-Based Vanadium Oxide Gas Sensors. Chemosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors8040105"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, H., Song, C., Wang, Z., Shao, H., Li, Y., Deng, H., Ma, Q., and Yu, K. (2019). Self-Assembled Vanadium Oxide Nanoflakes for p-Type Ammonia Sensors at Room Temperature. Nanomaterials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano9030317"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2020.148271","article-title":"Nanoimprint assisted free standing porous vanadium oxide nanosheet based ammonia sensor","volume":"541","author":"Mounasamy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.129679","article-title":"Selective ammonia sensing response of vanadium doped cerium oxide nanorods wrapped reduced graphene oxide electrodes at room temperature","volume":"336","author":"Amarnath","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23949","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.7b05377","article-title":"V2O5: A 2D van der Waals Oxide with Strong In-Plane Electrical and Optical Anisotropy","volume":"9","author":"Sucharitakul","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4894","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-026-12152-w","article-title":"Review: Vanadium pentoxide thin films-advanced doping strategies and interface engineering for next-generation applications","volume":"61","author":"Chackrabarti","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2026.140120","article-title":"Dual storage mechanism via hydrogen bonding and redox in 1D MOF-pillared vanadium oxide for high-performance aqueous ammonium-ion batteries","volume":"712","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.3390\/s7030267","article-title":"Gas Sensors Based on Conducting Polymers","volume":"7","author":"Shi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012002","DOI":"10.1088\/2515-7639\/ae1c70","article-title":"Recent advances in conducting polymer chemiresistive sensors for ammonia gas detection: Materials, characterization, and applications","volume":"9","author":"Nijkoops","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Phys. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, T.-H., Kim, Y., and Yoon, H. (2017). Electrical and Electrochemical Properties of Conducting Polymers. Polymers, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym9040150"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1616","article-title":"Unraveling the Role of Functional Groups in Polyaniline for NH3 Sensing: A Theoretical Approach","volume":"36","author":"Nulimu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.12.022","article-title":"A high-performance flexible gas sensor based on self-assembled PANI-CeO2 nanocomposite thin film for trace-level NH3 detection at room temperature","volume":"261","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.08.013","article-title":"Influence of polymerization temperature on NH3 response of PANI\/TiO2 thin film gas sensor","volume":"129","author":"Tai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2019.03.124","article-title":"High-performance room temperature NH3 gas sensors based on polyaniline-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite sensitive membrane","volume":"789","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9575","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-021-05884-4","article-title":"A review on mechanisms and recent developments in p-n heterojunctions of 2D materials for gas sensing applications","volume":"56","author":"Mathew","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.150384","article-title":"Polyaniline and water pre-intercalated V2O5 cathodes for high-performance planar zinc-ion micro-batteries","volume":"487","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1901747","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201901747","article-title":"Interface Engineering V2O5 Nanofibers for High-Energy and Durable Supercapacitors","volume":"15","author":"Bi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.161381","article-title":"Design and application of an integrated stretchable energy-storage gas sensing system with different morphologies of PANI@V2O5","volume":"510","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.130944","article-title":"Twistable and tailorable V2O5\/PANI\/GO nanocomposites textile for wearable ammonia sensing","volume":"351","author":"Xing","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raorane, C.J., and Kim, S.-C. (2026). Interfacial Engineering of V2O5 via Conductive Polyaniline for Accelerated Hydrogen Evolution Reaction. Polymers, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym18111408"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.04.059","article-title":"V2O5 thin films for gas sensor applications","volume":"236","author":"Schneider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Duy, L., Nguyet, T.T., Le, D.T.T., Van Duy, N., Nguyen, H., Biasioli, F., Tonezzer, M., Di Natale, C., and Hoa, N.D. (2022). Room Temperature Ammonia Gas Sensor Based on p-Type-like V2O5 Nanosheets towards Food Spoilage Monitoring. Nanomaterials, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano13010146"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2017.02.088","article-title":"Spray deposition of V4O9 and V2O5 thin films and post-annealing formation of thermochromic VO2","volume":"704","author":"Benkahoul","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5825","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.6c00193","article-title":"Memristive Ammonia Gas Sensor Based on CuO Nanosheets\/ZnO Nanoparticles Heterostructures with Pressure Assisted Recovery","volume":"9","author":"Qin","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasiliev, R., Kurtina, D., Udalova, N., Platonov, V., Nasriddinov, A., Shatalova, T., Novotortsev, R., Li, X., and Rumyantseva, M. (2022). SnS2 Nanosheets as a Template for 2D SnO2 Sensitive Material: Nanostructure and Surface Composition Effects. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15228213"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25187","DOI":"10.1039\/D5NR02547H","article-title":"Selective enhancement of graphene ammonia sensing by electrochemical palladium nanoparticle decoration: Ab initio insights into the sensing response","volume":"17","author":"Freddi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.127086","article-title":"High-performance PANI sensor on silicon nanowire arrays for sub-ppb NH3 detection","volume":"282","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.08.002","article-title":"Highly sensitive, room temperature gas sensor based on polyaniline-multiwalled carbon nanotubes (PANI\/MWCNTs) nanocomposite for trace-level ammonia detection","volume":"221","author":"Abdulla","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos-Ceballos, J.C., Salehnia, F., G\u00fcell, F., Romero, A., Vilanova, X., and Llobet, E. (2024). Room-Temperature Ammonia Sensing Using Polyaniline-Coated Laser-Induced Graphene. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24237832"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.3762\/bjnano.13.34","article-title":"A chemiresistive sensor array based on polyaniline nanocomposites and machine learning classification","volume":"13","author":"Kroutil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.170817","article-title":"High-performance flexible NH3 sensor based on PANI\/Ti3C2Tx composites for real-time fish spoilage detection","volume":"526","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2024.135784","article-title":"Room-temperature NH3-sensor: SnO2@PANI core-shell hollow spheres","volume":"412","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hadano, F.S., Gavim, A.E.X., Stefanelo, J.C., Gusso, S.L., Macedo, A.G., Rodrigues, P.C., Mohd Yusoff, A.R.b., Schneider, F.K., Deus, J.F.d., and Jos\u00e9 da Silva, W. (2021). NH3 Sensor Based on rGO-PANI Composite with Improved Sensitivity. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21154947"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cplett.2025.142044","article-title":"Enhanced detection of ammonia (NH3) using a TiO2\/PANI\/GO composite for real-time environmental monitoring","volume":"869","author":"Ragab","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.133987","article-title":"PANI\/3D crumpled Ti3C2TX\/TiO2 nanocomposites for flexible conductometric NH3 sensors working at room temperature","volume":"390","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.130179","article-title":"Design and preparation of hollow NiO sphere- polyaniline composite for NH3 gas sensing at room temperature","volume":"344","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205101","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0233493","article-title":"Electronic vs optical bandgap of stoichiometric V2O5: Effects of surface transfer doping and electron accumulation layer","volume":"136","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1039\/C4RA11832D","article-title":"Tuning the work function of polyaniline via camphorsulfonic acid: An X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy investigation","volume":"5","author":"Abdulrazzaq","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1152","article-title":"Synthesis and optical characterization of benzene sulfonic acid doped polyaniline","volume":"21","author":"Bindal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/16\/5300\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T11:40:30Z","timestamp":1787312430000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/16\/5300"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s26165300"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26165300","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]}}}