{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T14:59:23Z","timestamp":1787324363227,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cervical range of motion (CROM) has been used in research and clinically for assessing cervical health. Gold-standard goniometers tend to be cumbersome. However, Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) or vision-based alternatives demand frequent calibration and\/or costly hardware; moreover, the subject is aware of being measured and there is a risk of breaching privacy. In response, we have developed a non-contact HPNet system for head pose estimation (HPE) that can use a rear-facing camera to quantify CROM accurately. A Re-parameterized Visual Geometry Group (RepVGG)-D2se model is employed as the backbone of the network, and a Spatial Feature Enhancement (SCFE) module is incorporated to improve feature extraction. HPNet was evaluated on the large-scale Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) Panoptic dataset, achieving a mean absolute error (MAE) of 3.48\u00b0, 3.22\u00b0and 3.34\u00b0 for yaw, pitch and roll respectively. Inter-instrument reliability was excellent for all six cervical movements when compared with the research\/clinical-grade CROM device, with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) averaging 0.939. Bland\u2013Altman plots confirmed close agreement between the two methods. Cervical movement trajectory curves further confirmed the concordance between the clinical device and our method. The system is fully automatic, requires only a rear-facing camera, effectively preserves patient privacy, and provides accurate cervical posture estimation. This technology may provide a basis for future applications in neck-disorder screening, remote health monitoring, and personalized musculoskeletal wellness management, although further task-specific clinical validation will be required. To date, HPNet has been validated primarily on a computer-based platform and has not yet been deployed on smartphones. Future work will focus on model lightweighting, mobile deployment, and cross-device adaptation to facilitate its practical implementation on mobile devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26165310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T14:20:36Z","timestamp":1787322036000},"page":"5310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Privacy-Preserving Head Pose Estimation System for Measuring Cervical Range of Motion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Zhuofu","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement Control Technology and Communication Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lichao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement Control Technology and Communication Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8277-426X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaohan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Measurement Control Technology and Communication Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter W.","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Science and Education, University of South Wales, Treforest, Pontypridd CF37 1DL, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Durban University of Technology, Durban 1334, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2023.101869","article-title":"DADL: Double Asymmetric Distribution Learning for Head Pose Estimation in Wisdom Museum","volume":"36","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. 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