{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:23:17Z","timestamp":1787732597978,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Korean Government","award":["NRF-2022S1A5A2A03054352"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2022S1A5A2A03054352"]}]},{"name":"Korean Government","award":["RS-2025-00554526"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-00554526"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002631","name":"Gachon University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GCU-202400500001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCU-202400500001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002631","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["GCU-202400500001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCU-202400500001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03ryywt80","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Soccer requires rapid tactical decision-making, perceptual-cognitive processing, and coordinated physical execution, making it a relevant application domain for virtual reality (VR). VR systems integrate head-mounted displays, inertial measurement units, eye-tracking sensors, and electroencephalographic interfaces to support training, assessment, rehabilitation, and engagement. However, evidence remains fragmented across populations, study designs, sensing configurations, and research purposes, limiting conclusions about effectiveness and real-world application. Following PRISMA 2020, this systematic review synthesized 20 empirical studies published between January 2020 and 16 August 2026 involving school, academy, collegiate, and selected indirect adult soccer populations. Studies were classified by sensor modality, tracking configuration, evidence purpose, and outcome domain. Controlled intervention studies reported possible short-term improvements in selected sensorimotor, tactical, perceptual-cognitive, technical, and motivational outcomes. In contrast, cross-sectional and profiling studies showed that some VR tasks distinguished players by expertise, age, or competitive level; these findings support assessment or discriminative validity but do not demonstrate that VR training improves performance. Rehabilitation and injury-related evidence was limited and partly derived from adult or clinical populations, whereas engagement studies suggested potential benefits for motivation, attention, and participation. Six-degrees-of-freedom HMDs, 360\u00b0 projection systems, eye tracking, and EEG generated different types of evidence, but no study directly compared hardware configurations within the same sample. The main contribution of this review is an integrated evidence-purpose and sensor-based synthesis that distinguishes training effectiveness from assessment validity across student-soccer applications. Overall, evidence remains promising but preliminary because of small and mixed populations, methodological heterogeneity, incomplete technical reporting, possible publication and language bias, short follow-up, and limited transfer to full-match performance. Standardized sensor reporting, controlled interventions, and longitudinal transfer assessments are required. Protocol registration: OSF.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:11:15Z","timestamp":1787731875000},"page":"5381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Virtual Reality Sensing Technologies in Student Soccer Training: A Systematic Review of Tracking Systems and Perceptual-Cognitive, Physical, Tactical, and Educational Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Jaejun","family":"Park","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Gachon University, Seongnam-si 13120, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zainab","family":"Ghazanfar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Gachon University, Seongnam-si 13120, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2682-8300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saba Ghazanfar","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sang Wan","family":"Jeon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Education Department, Mokpo National University, Muan-gun 58554, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Younhyun","family":"Jung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Gachon University, Seongnam-si 13120, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, R. (2019). Virtual environments and their role in developing perceptual-cognitive skills in sports. Anticipation and Decision Making in Sport, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315146270-19"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lucia, S., Bianco, V., Boccacci, L., and Di Russo, F. (2021). Effects of a cognitive-motor training on anticipatory brain functions and sport performance in semi-elite basketball players. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12010068"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-021-00565-8","article-title":"Effect of immersive visualization technologies on cognitive load, motivation, usability, and embodiment","volume":"27","author":"Wenk","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krupitzer, C., Naber, J., Stauffert, J.-P., Mayer, J., Spielmann, J., Ehmann, P., Boci, N., B\u00fcrkle, M., Ho, A., and Komorek, C. (2022). CortexVR: Immersive analysis and training of cognitive executive functions of soccer players using virtual reality and machine learning. Front. Psychol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.754732"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2025.109168","article-title":"Effects of virtual reality-based training for soccer players on anticipatory brain functions and cognitive skills","volume":"202","author":"Casella","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosp, B.W., Schultz, F., H\u00f6ner, O., and Kasneci, E. (2021). Soccer goalkeeper expertise identification based on eye movements. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251070"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kittel, A., Cunningham, I., and Larkin, P. (2023). 360\u00b0 VR in Sport and Physical Activity\u2013It Is Very Real, Frontiers Media SA.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1342533"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5114\/biolsport.2023.109961","article-title":"Injury incidence and risk factors in youth soccer players: A systematic literature review. Part I: Epidemiological analysis","volume":"40","author":"Mandorino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalski, S.C., Szpak, A., Saredakis, D., Ross, T.J., Billinghurst, M., and Loetscher, T. (2019). Getting your game on: Using virtual reality to improve real table tennis skills. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/aw5gk"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghazanfar, Z., Ali, S.G., Wan Jeon, S.W., and Jung, Y. (2026). Virtual Reality and Exergaming for Tennis Skill Development: A Systematic Review of Human Performance, Engagement, Transfer, and Application. Front. Virtual Real., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2026.1880568"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/17434440.2018.1425613","article-title":"Virtual reality in cognitive and motor rehabilitation: Facts, fiction and fallacies","volume":"15","author":"Tieri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-017-0320-5","article-title":"A systematic review of the application of interactive virtual reality to sport","volume":"22","author":"Neumann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, H.S., and Lee, J. (2021). The effect of elementary school soccer instruction using virtual reality technologies on students\u2019 attitudes toward physical education and flow in class. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13063240"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e04527","article-title":"Virtual immersive sensorimotor training (VIST) in collegiate soccer athletes: A quasi-experimental study","volume":"6","author":"Reneker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-023-00807-x","article-title":"A preliminary investigation into the efficacy of training soccer heading in immersive virtual reality","volume":"27","author":"Marshall","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31448","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83071-6","article-title":"Comparing virtual reality and balance training effects on postural strategies during ball kicking in soccer players with chronic ankle instability","volume":"14","author":"Faghihi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-020-00441-x","article-title":"Testing the construct validity of a soccer-specific virtual reality simulator using novice, academy, and professional soccer players","volume":"25","author":"Wood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2021.102120","article-title":"Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360-environment\u2013Differences between age groups and performance levels","volume":"59","author":"Ehmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102856","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2021.102856","article-title":"Virtual reality promotes greater improvements than video-stimulation screen on perceptual-cognitive skills in young soccer athletes","volume":"79","author":"Fortes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102220","article-title":"Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360-environment\u2013an investigation of the relationship with soccer-specific performance and the effects of systematic training","volume":"61","author":"Ehmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00f6ner, O., Dugandzic, D., Hauser, T., St\u00fcgelmaier, M., Willig, N., and Schultz, F. (2023). Do you have a good all-around view? Evaluation of a decision-making skills diagnostic tool using 360 videos and head-mounted displays in elite youth soccer. Front. Sports Act. Living, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2023.1171262"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-026-01357-8","article-title":"Evaluating the impact of VR training on scanning frequency in national level youth football: Insights into transfer and performance","volume":"30","author":"Tiercery","year":"2026","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eri\u015fik, K., Cerrah, A.O., and Cinarli, F.S. (2025). Effects of virtual reality-based cognitive and technical drills on scanning and passing performance in youth football players: A randomized controlled study. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-025-01425-7"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyazawa, T., Okamoto, I., and Ichikawa, D. (2026). Can VR replace the ball? Evaluating the role of virtual training in soccer heading development. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach., 17479541251413081.","DOI":"10.1177\/17479541251413081"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-025-01310-1","article-title":"Influence of ball reception on multiple player tracking in a virtual soccer environment","volume":"30","author":"Vu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ibrahim, C., Kuan, G., Muhamad, A.S., Kueh, Y.C., and Chin, N.S. (2023). The effect of virtual reality imagery on motivation and football kicking skill performance among youth football players in Sarawak. Advancing Sports and Exercise Via Innovation: Proceedings of the 9th Asian South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology International Congress (ASPASP) 2022, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-8159-3_5"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.17309\/tmfv.2026.3.18","article-title":"The Effect of Virtual Reality-Based Multimodal Training Programs on the Balance and Agility of Young Football Athletes","volume":"26","author":"Annasai","year":"2026","journal-title":"Phys. Educ. Theory Methodol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.26773\/smj.260611","article-title":"Effects of Integrating 3-D Virtual Reality Prior to Small-Sided Games on Intention to Continue Exercising, Teamwork, and Technical Performance in Young Soccer Athletes","volume":"24","author":"Rusmanto","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sport Mont"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.7575\/aiac.ijkss.v.13n.4p.50","article-title":"The Effects of Virtual Reality\u2013Based Coaching on Physical and Psychological Attributes of Young Female Footballers: A Quasi-Experimental Study","volume":"13","author":"Makhadmeh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Kinesiol. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"l4898","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l4898","article-title":"RoB 2: A revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials","volume":"366","author":"Sterne","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i4919","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i4919","article-title":"ROBINS-I: A tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions","volume":"355","author":"Sterne","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.52.6.377","article-title":"The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of health care interventions","volume":"52","author":"Downs","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, C., Huang, T.-Y., and Ma, H.-P. (2022). Motion analysis of football kick based on an IMU sensor. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22166244"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Zhou, X., Yang, J., and Fu, Q. (2024). Animated VR and 360-degree VR to assess and train team sports decision-making: A scoping review. Front. Psychol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1410132"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25258","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-08173-1","article-title":"The role of virtual reality-based cognitive training in enhancing motivation and cognitive functions in individuals with chronic stroke","volume":"15","author":"Maggio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-025-01161-w","article-title":"Effects of short-and long-term virtual reality training on concentration performance and executive functions in amateur esports athletes","volume":"29","author":"Lachowicz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, J., Siegel, E., Sundaramoorthy, P., Gomes, A., Zhang, S., Vankipuram, M., Smathers, K., Ghosh, S., Horii, H., and Bailenson, J. (2025). Cognitive load inference using physiological markers in virtual reality. 2025 IEEE Conference Virtual Reality and 3d User Interfaces (VR), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/VR59515.2025.00098"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolfers, J., Hurst, W., and Krampe, C. (2026). Integrating EEG Sensors with Virtual Reality to Support Students with ADHD. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26031017"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ang, S., and Quarles, J. (2023). Reduction of cybersickness in head mounted displays use: A systematic review and taxonomy of current strategies. Front. Virtual Real., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2023.1027552"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-024-05488-5","article-title":"Safety of virtual reality use in children: A systematic review","volume":"183","author":"Bexson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumarapeli, D., Jung, S., and Lindeman, R.W. (2024). Privacy threats of behaviour identity detection in VR. Front. Virtual Real., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2024.1197547"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-021-00563-w","article-title":"Could virtual reality applications pose real risks to children and adolescents? A systematic review of ethical issues and concerns","volume":"26","author":"Kaimara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virtual Real."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5381\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:15:19Z","timestamp":1787732119000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5381"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26175381"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26175381","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]}}}