{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T05:16:59Z","timestamp":1787894219488,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":214,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Jiangsu Provincial Special Program for Frontier Technology Research","award":["BF2025312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BF2025312"]}]},{"name":"Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Machinery","award":["XDNJ2023006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDNJ2023006"]}]},{"award":["XDNJ2023006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDNJ2023006"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03hcmxw73","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review summarizes recent advances in intelligent spraying systems for precision agriculture. It focuses on the three interconnected components of perception, decision-making, and actuation, and compares the sensing characteristics of 2D planar field crops and three-dimensional orchard canopies. Particular emphasis is placed on evaluating the target recognition capabilities and physical limitations of machine vision, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), ultrasound, and active fluorescence spectroscopy under complex field conditions. At the actuation level, the dynamic response characteristics of Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM), proportional control valves, and adaptive control algorithms are critically reviewed, revealing the influence mechanism of hydraulic transient phenomena, including water hammer effects induced by high-frequency valve switching, on droplet size distribution (DSD). The review further discusses the coupling effects between Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) airflow fields, Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV) motion disturbances, and spray deposition performance, and summarizes reported improvements in pesticide reduction, water conservation, and drift mitigation. Finally, the potential of cyber\u2013physical systems (CPS) and digital twin-based frameworks for developing adaptive and closed-loop intelligent spraying systems is discussed to provide insights into future all-weather and autonomous agricultural operations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T15:04:32Z","timestamp":1787756672000},"page":"5403","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Intelligent Perception, Decision-Making and Actuation Technologies for Precision Agrochemical Spraying: Current Advances and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Qi","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4377-9651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhen","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7436-7663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingbo","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cundeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300007","DOI":"10.1002\/gch2.202300007","article-title":"Sustained agricultural spraying: From leaf wettability to dynamic droplet impact behavior","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Glob. Chall."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106035","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2022.106035","article-title":"Internal mixing air-assisted spray nozzle for large droplets: Experimental measurements and numerical simulations","volume":"165","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.13031\/aea.14245","article-title":"Axis-switching behavior of liquid jets issued from non-circular nozzles under low-intermediate pressure","volume":"37","author":"Hua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Eng. Agric."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2020.03.003","article-title":"Three-dimensional flow breakup characteristics of a circular jet with different nozzle geometries","volume":"193","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e560","DOI":"10.1590\/1679-78258151","article-title":"On mathematical modeling of an orchard tower sprayer dynamics excited by rheological magnetic damping","volume":"21","author":"Balthazar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lat. Am. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutini, M., Bisaglia, C., Brambilla, M., Bragaglio, A., Pallottino, F., Assirelli, A., Romano, E., Montaghi, A., Leo, E., and Pezzola, M. (2023). A co-simulation virtual reality machinery simulator for advanced precision agriculture applications. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13081603"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21208","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.3c02650","article-title":"Uncovering the effect of physical conditions and surface roughness on the maximum spreading factor of impinging droplets using a supervised artificial neural network model","volume":"62","author":"Choudhury","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, X., Zhang, B., Xu, X., Chang, Z., Wang, X., and Wu, C. (2025). Design and performance evaluation of a multi-fluid swirling mixing atomizer for efficient generation of ozonated droplets in agricultural applications. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15051082"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-024-10201-5","article-title":"Field validation of a variable rate application sprayer equipped with ultrasonic sensors in apple tree plantations","volume":"26","author":"Salas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2023.106360","article-title":"An automated weed identification framework for sugarcane crop: A deep learning approach","volume":"173","author":"Modi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saqib, M.A., Aqib, M., Tahir, M.N., and Hafeez, Y. (2023). Towards deep learning based smart farming for intelligent weeds management in crops. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1211235"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.70132","article-title":"Development and preliminary evaluation of a machine vision-guided smart sprayer prototype toward precision vegetable weeding","volume":"43","author":"Deng","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.13031\/ja.16539","article-title":"Improvements and evaluation of a smart sprayer prototype for weed control in vegetable crops","volume":"69","author":"Deng","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Abbas, I., and Noor, R.S. (2021). Development of deep learning-based variable Rate agrochemical spraying system for targeted weeds control in strawberry crop. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11081480"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Jia, W., Ou, M., Wang, X., and Dong, X. (2025). A Review of Orchard Canopy Perception Technologies for Variable-Rate Spraying. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25164898"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.13031\/ja.15070","article-title":"Investigation of depth camera potentials for variable-rate sprayers","volume":"66","author":"Jeon","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2023.108429","article-title":"Development of a line following autonomous spraying vehicle with Machine vision-based leaf density estimation for cherry tomato greenhouses","volume":"215","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2025.110608","article-title":"Accelerating weed detection for smart agricultural sprayers using a Neural Processing Unit","volume":"237","author":"Herterich","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez, P.R., and Zhang, H. (2022). Simulation-Aided Development of a CNN-Based Vision Module for Plant Detection: Effect of Travel Velocity, Inferencing Speed, and Camera Configurations. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031260"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2022.107325","article-title":"AI-enabled droplet detection and tracking for agricultural spraying systems","volume":"202","author":"Acharya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22101","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0248681","article-title":"Dynamic characteristics of oblique droplet impact on a liquid film","volume":"37","author":"Bao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2023.05.067","article-title":"Suppression of droplet pinch-off by early onset of interfacial instability","volume":"646","author":"Lathia","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J., Esmaili, E., Kang, G., Seong, B., Kang, H., Kim, J., Jung, S., Kim, H., and Byun, D. (2021). The Role of Electric Pressure\/Stress Suppressing Pinhole Defect on Coalescence Dynamics of Electrified Droplet. Coatings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings11050503"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16756","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2006153117","article-title":"Evaporating droplets on oil-wetted surfaces: Suppression of the coffee-stain effect","volume":"117","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2023.159044","article-title":"Superhydrophobic meta-aramid papers prepared by the surface-embedded spray coating strategy","volume":"648","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yue, Y., and Zhao, A. (2025). Soybean Seedling-Stage Weed Detection and Distribution Mapping Based on Low-Altitude UAV Remote Sensing and an Improved YOLOv11n Model. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15122693"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2025.104288","article-title":"AI-driven real-time weed detection and robotic smart spraying for optimised performance and operational speed in vegetable production","volume":"259","author":"Vijayakumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ru, Y., Hu, C., Chen, X., Yang, F., Zhang, C., Li, J., and Fang, S. (2023). Droplet Penetration Model Based on Canopy Porosity for Spraying Applications. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13020339"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2025.107360","article-title":"Quantitative Assessment of Banana Canopy Porosity Based on a Three-Dimensional Canopy Model and Its Impact on Spray Droplet Penetration within the Canopy from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Spraying Systems","volume":"197","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.155259","article-title":"Enhanced evaporation and heat transfer of sessile droplets via coupling electric field and temperature field","volume":"498","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62118","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0147849","article-title":"Droplet impingement on a solid surface: Parametrization and asymmetry of dynamic contact angle model","volume":"35","author":"Sinha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, J., Liu, K., Dong, X., Chen, C., Qiu, B., and Zhang, S. (2022). Effects of Leaf Surface Roughness and Contact Angle on In Vivo Measurement of Droplet Retention. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12092228"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.elstat.2021.103591","article-title":"Estimating droplet charge in numerical simulations of charged sprays","volume":"112","author":"Brentjes","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Electrost."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2025.104378","article-title":"CFD modelling of an electrostatic spraying system to optimise pesticide spray efficiency and reduce drift","volume":"263","author":"Herkins","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19296","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-21943-5","article-title":"Self-charging of sprays","volume":"12","author":"Kooij","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1094\/PDIS-06-21-1164-RE","article-title":"Management of Grape Powdery Mildew with an Intelligent Sprayer and Sulfur","volume":"106","author":"Warneke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plant Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, S., Li, W., Ma, H., Wang, K., Du, Z., and Zheng, Y. (2025). Design of target-variable spraying system based on FAVD of fruit tree canopy. Front. Plant Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2025.1582664"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1","article-title":"Canopy Deposition Characteristics of Different Orchard Pesticide Dose Models","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C., Hu, F., Peng, J., Wang, J., and Zhai, R. (2022). Segmentation and stratification methods of field maize terrestrial LiDAR point cloud. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12091450"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2020.05.015","article-title":"Semantic segmentation of sparse 3D point cloud based on geometrical features for trellis-structured apple orchard","volume":"196","author":"Zeng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-021-09803-0","article-title":"Object-level classification of vegetable crops in 3D LiDAR point cloud using deep learning convolutional neural networks","volume":"22","author":"Jayakumari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2024.02.010","article-title":"Automatic acquisition, analysis and wilting measurement of cotton 3D phenotype based on point cloud","volume":"239","author":"Hao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2024.109132","article-title":"PointResNet: A grape bunches point cloud semantic segmentation model based on feature enhancement and improved PointNet++","volume":"224","author":"Luo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Chen, S., Zhou, B., He, H., Zhao, Y., Wang, Y., and Zhou, X. (2024). Multitemporal field-based maize plant height information extraction and verification using solid-state LiDAR. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14051069"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2024.109197","article-title":"Extraction of crop canopy features and decision-making for variable spraying based on unmanned aerial vehicle LiDAR data","volume":"224","author":"Luo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atech.2025.101673","article-title":"Canopy3D-Net: Semantic segmentation of fruit tree canopies based on 3D point clouds","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Smart Agric. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ilari, A., Piancatelli, S., Centorame, L., Moumni, M., Romanazzi, G., and Foppa Pedretti, E. (2023). Distribution Quality of Agrochemicals for the Revamping of a Sprayer System Based on Lidar Technology and Grapevine Disease Management. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13042222"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Li, Q., Yuan, P., and Zhou, H. (2025). Orchard Variable-Rate Sprayer Using LiDAR-Based Canopy Volume Measurement. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15122709"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, L., Wang, S., Wang, Z., Jin, L., and He, X. (2023). Method of 3D Voxel Prescription Map Construction in Digital Orchard Management Based on LiDAR-RTK Boarded on a UGV. Drones, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones7040242"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1109\/MGRS.2020.3032713","article-title":"Lidar Boosts 3D Ecological Observations and Modelings: A Review and Perspective","volume":"9","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.13031\/ja.15285","article-title":"Static and dynamic performance evaluation of a solid-state LiDAR for 3D object detection in greenhouse spray applications","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2024.109056","article-title":"Development and evaluation of an intelligent multivariable spraying robot for orchards and nurseries","volume":"222","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Li, C., Pan, X., Wang, X., Zhao, X., Gao, Y., and Zhai, C. (2023). Model for Detecting Boom Height Based on an Ultrasonic Sensor for the Whole Growth Cycle of Wheat. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.1942.v1"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, H., Jia, W., Li, Y., and Ou, M. (2021). Method for Estimating Canopy Thickness Using Ultrasonic Sensor Technology. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11101011"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ou, M., Hu, T., Hu, M., Yang, S., Jia, W., Wang, M., and Dong, X. (2022). Experiment of Canopy Leaf Area Density Estimation Method Based on Ultrasonic Echo Signal. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12101569"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Zhai, C., Wang, S., Dou, H., Yang, S., Wang, X., and Chen, L. (2022). Sprayer boom height measurement in wheat field using ultrasonic sensor: An exploratory study. Front. Plant Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2022.1008122"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quan, L., Chen, K., Chen, T., Li, H., Li, W., Cheng, T., and Jiang, W. (2023). Monitoring weed mechanical and chemical damage stress based on chlorophyll fluorescence imaging. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1188981"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2023.02.006","article-title":"Real-time control of high-resolution micro-jet sprayer integrated with machine vision for precision weed control","volume":"228","author":"Raja","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-03858-9","article-title":"OpenWeedLocator (OWL): An open-source, low-cost device for fallow weed detection","volume":"12","author":"Coleman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2467","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.6874","article-title":"Vegetation Detection Based on Spectral Information and Development of a Low-Cost Vegetation Sensor for Selective Spraying","volume":"78","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2025.110009","article-title":"Automatic visualization of crop signaling markers in tomato plants for differentiation of labeled plants from weeds based on fluorescence imaging","volume":"231","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Y., Amirkhani, M., Lewis, E., Sosnoskie, L., and Taylor, A. (2025). Systemic Uptake of Rhodamine Tracers Quantified by Fluorescence Imaging: Applications for Enhanced Crop\u2013Weed Detection. AgriEngineering, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriengineering7030049"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Z., Li, M., Xing, B., Chang, Y., Yan, H., Zhou, H., and Chen, C. (2025). Aerial spray droplet deposition determination based on fluorescence correction: Exploring the combination of a chemical colorant and water-sensitive paper. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15090931"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, C.G., Yu, S.H., and Rhee, J.Y. (2023). Effects of unmanned aerial spray system flight altitude and collector height on spray deposition measured using a food dye tracer. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13010096"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gody\u0144, A., \u015awiechowski, W., Doruchowski, G., Ho\u0142ownicki, R., Bartosik, A., and Sas, K. (2025). Spray deposition, drift and equipment contamination for drone and conventional orchard spraying under European conditions. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15232467"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2025.107532","article-title":"Evaluation of droplet deposition effects of pre-wetting application by UAVs in mountain Nanguo pear orchards","volume":"202","author":"Yao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atech.2025.101715","article-title":"The effect of UAV sprayer operational characteristics on spray deposition within the target area","volume":"13","author":"Khankandi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Smart Agric. Technol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Yang, S., Gao, Y., Pan, X., Zou, W., Wei, Y., and Chen, L. (2024). Optimization of a Boom Height Ultrasonic Detecting Model for the Whole Growth Cycle of Wheat: Affected by the Oscillation of the Three-Section Boom of the Sprayer. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14101733"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"39","article-title":"Development and Experiments of Low Frequency Ultrasonic Electrostatic Atomizing Nozzle with Double Resonators","volume":"15","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.13031\/ja.15963","article-title":"Pressure dynamics of a spray nozzle under pulse-width modulation control","volume":"68","author":"Pokharel","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2024.12.015","article-title":"Design and test investigation of a 3WZ-600 profiling sprayer for dwarf-dense planting jujube orchard","volume":"250","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.13031\/trans.13366","article-title":"Investigation of an Experimental Laser Sensor-Guided Spray Control System for Greenhouse Variable-Rate Applications","volume":"62","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2025.104132","article-title":"Prediction of Droplet Size and Spreading Parameter by Rotary Cup Atomisation Using Dimensional Analysis","volume":"253","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-025-10304-7","article-title":"Design and evaluation of a PI-controlled robotic smart sprayer for precision herbicide applications with multi-nozzle integration","volume":"27","author":"Vijayakumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Jia, D., Yang, M., Zhang, Y., Qu, D., and Lv, Z. (2024). Numerical Simulation of the Dynamic Behavior Exhibited by Charged Droplets Colliding with Liquid Film. Coatings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings14060676"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15082","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.0c02643","article-title":"Receding Dynamics of Droplet Deposition on a Smooth Surface from a Central Jet to Secondary Droplet Emission","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icheatmasstransfer.2024.108095","article-title":"Reducing the contact time of impacting droplets on superhydrophobic surfaces using dual synthetic jets","volume":"159","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-024-07678-2","article-title":"Manipulation of dynamic behavior of impacting droplets by surface patterns","volume":"130","author":"Mu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2021.106333","article-title":"Parametric influencing mechanism and control of contact time for droplets impacting on the solid surfaces","volume":"197","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.127688","article-title":"A numerical study on the interaction of droplet collisions and air flow impact in cross-impinging spray","volume":"277","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Ma, Z., and Wei, M. (2026). Coupled Impact Dynamics of Double Droplets on Curved Cylindrical Surfaces. Symmetry, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym18020365"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4396","DOI":"10.1177\/09544062261425861","article-title":"Impact dynamics of multiple droplets on lightweight surface","volume":"240","author":"Xu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2023.106188","article-title":"Shape, stability and dynamics of a charged drop falling on a substrate","volume":"172","author":"Mhatre","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95005","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0208630","article-title":"Experimental and theoretical study on the ceasing motion of a droplet manipulated by air-blowing nozzle","volume":"14","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"69","article-title":"Numerical investigation of the effects of droplet number and horizontal distance on maximum spreading area and heat transfer performance","volume":"43","author":"Gultekin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Is\u0131 Bilim. Tek. Derg."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anucene.2021.108814","article-title":"Effect of impact velocity on time-dependent force and droplet pressure in high-speed liquid droplet impingement","volume":"166","author":"Fujisawa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Nucl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2025.121994","article-title":"Deposition and rebound of impacting droplets on spherical surfaces","volume":"316","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karadol, H., Aybek, A., Ucgul, M., Kuzu, H., and Gunes, M. (2024). Field Sprayer with Application Rate Control Using Fast Response Proportional Valves under Variable Speed Conditions. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14030361"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11633","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3191240","article-title":"Algorithm and System Development for Robotic Micro-Volume Herbicide Spray Towards Precision Weed Management","volume":"7","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/cite.202200152","article-title":"Influence of Nozzle Parameters on Spray Pattern and Droplet Characteristics for a Two-Fluid Nozzle","volume":"95","author":"Kramm","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Ing. Tech."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A2","DOI":"10.1017\/jfm.2022.1046","article-title":"Aerodynamic droplet atomization model (ADAM)","volume":"958","author":"Jackiw","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"993","article-title":"Real time variable rate sprayer: Its development and comparative analysis of spray coverage with conventional orchard sprayer","volume":"59","author":"Nauman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pak. J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprocont.2024.103164","article-title":"Advanced embedded generalized predictive controller based on fuzzy gain scheduling for agricultural sprayers with dead zone nonlinearities","volume":"135","author":"Schutz","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Process Control"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92111","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0058512","article-title":"Water sprays formed by impinging millimeter-sized droplets on superhydrophobic meshes","volume":"33","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.13031\/aea.13358","article-title":"Investigation of Optimum Applied Voltage, Liquid Flow Pressure, and Spraying Height for Pesticide Application by Induction Charging","volume":"35","author":"Appah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Eng. Agric."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, X., Wang, A., and Wei, X. (2021). Precision Control of Spraying Quantity Based on Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control Method. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11080761"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"30","article-title":"Design of a High-Voltage Electrostatic Ultrasonic Atomization Nozzle and Its Droplet Adhesion Effects on Aeroponically Cultivated Plant Roots","volume":"16","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1819","DOI":"10.1007\/s10341-023-00876-x","article-title":"Orchard Sprayer Design for Precision Pesticide Application","volume":"65","author":"Koc","year":"2023","journal-title":"Erwerbs-Obstbau"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2025.121672","article-title":"Research on dual-charged electrostatic spraying method based on charging of cotton leaves and pesticide droplets","volume":"235","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2025.110793","article-title":"A robust and efficient multi-electrode electrostatic nozzle for tracking dynamic variation of liquid film","volume":"238","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.4081\/jae.2025.1736","article-title":"Motion behavior of a charged droplet impacting on hydrophilic and hydrophobic leaf surfaces","volume":"56","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121583","article-title":"Isolated moving charged droplet evaporation characteristics in electrostatic field with highly volatile R134a","volume":"178","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"5","article-title":"Studies on Operational and Plant Parameters Affecting the Deposition of Charged and Uncharged Spray Droplets on Cabbage Plant Canopy","volume":"81","author":"Jyoti","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sci. Ind. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz, C., Torregrosa, A., Saiz-Rubio, V., and Rovira-Mas, F. (2023). Vibration Analysis of Pulse-Width-Modulated Nozzles in Vineyard Blast Sprayers. Horticulturae, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae9060703"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.13031\/ja.15064","article-title":"Droplet size distributions from hollow-cone nozzles coupled with PWM valves","volume":"65","author":"Salcedo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, Z., Xue, X., Sun, Z., Xu, Y., Zhou, Q., Jiao, Y., Zhou, H., and Ding, S. (2025). Design and Testing of a PLC-Controlled Pressure Stabilization System for Targeted Spraying on Heading Vegetables. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15050452"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, S., Zhang, J., Jia, W., Ou, M., Zhou, H., Dong, X., Chen, H., Wang, M., Chen, Y., and Yang, S. (2022). Experimental Study on the Droplet Size and Charge-to-Mass Ratio of an Air-Assisted Electrostatic Nozzle. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12060889"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Zeng, Y., Zhao, X., Liu, J., and Liu, D. (2021). Analysis of Film Forming Law and Characteristics for an Air Static Spray with a Variable Position of the Plane. Coatings, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings11101236"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2026.111787","article-title":"Design and implementation of an orchard variable spray system based on visual recognition and fuzzy adaptive decoupling","volume":"248","author":"Song","year":"2026","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Zhai, C., Zhang, M., Zhang, C., Zou, W., and Zhao, C. (2024). Staggered-Phase Spray Control: A Method for Eliminating the Inhomogeneity of Deposition in Low-Frequency Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Variable Spray. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14030465"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liao, J., Luo, X., Wang, P., Zhou, Z., O\u2019Donnell, C.C., Zang, Y., and Hewitt, A.J. (2020). Analysis of the Influence of Different Parameters on Droplet Characteristics and Droplet Size Classification Categories for Air Induction Nozzle. Agronomy, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy10020256"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, M., Jia, F., Gong, C., and Kang, C. (2025). The Effect of Pesticide Solutions on the Deposition of Bubble-Containing Droplets. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15051172"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2025.107298","article-title":"Estimating the Dynamic Impact Behavior of Spray Droplets on Rice Foliage","volume":"197","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113310","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0120790","article-title":"Spatial evolution of multi-scale droplet clusters in an evaporating spray","volume":"34","author":"Pandurangan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, F., Gu, C., Yi, K., Dou, H., Li, S., Yang, S., Zou, W., and Zhai, C. (2023). Atomization Characteristics of a Hollow Cone Nozzle for Air-Assisted Variable-Rate Spraying. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13101992"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Wu, J., Pan, X., Dou, H., Zhao, X., Gao, Y., and Zhai, C. (2023). Design and Experiment of a Breakpoint Continuous Spraying System for Automatic-Guidance Boom Sprayers. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13122203"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expthermflusci.2021.110402","article-title":"Droplet Generation during Spray Impact onto a Downward-Facing Solid Surface","volume":"126","author":"Zhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfin.2024.105514","article-title":"Research on the Dynamic Characteristics of Micro-Scale Droplet Impact","volume":"56","author":"Kong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Surf. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4995","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.5c06267","article-title":"Impurity-Induced Localized Superhydrophobicity Breakdown","volume":"26","author":"Jiang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2021.04.005","article-title":"Visualisation of the Evolution of Perforations in Oil-Based Emulsion Sheets Formed by Flat-Fan Spray Nozzles","volume":"207","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5347","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.7157","article-title":"Effect of Oil-Based Emulsion on Air Bubbles in the Spray Sheet Produced through the Air-Induction Nozzle","volume":"78","author":"Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, C., Jia, F., and Kang, C. (2024). Deposition of Water and Emulsion Hollow Droplets on Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Surfaces. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14060960"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-025-10231-7","article-title":"Precision mapping and treatment of spring dead spot in bermudagrass using unmanned aerial vehicles and global navigation satellite systems sprayer technology","volume":"26","author":"Henderson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-025-10286-6","article-title":"Integrating computer vision and precision sprayers for targeted green fruit chemical thinning","volume":"26","author":"Kang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, H., Liu, C., Li, Y., Shi, H., Zhao, S., Wu, M., and Hu, J. (2024). Design of a contact-type rlectrostatic spray boom system based on rod-plate wlectrode structure and field experiments on droplet deposition distribution. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14112715"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s13007-022-00914-x","article-title":"Computational fluid dynamics simulation experimental verification and analysis of droplets deposition behaviour on vibrating pear leaves","volume":"18","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Plant Methods"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2020.08.001","article-title":"The Effect of Spray Structure of Oil-Based Emulsion Spray on the Droplet Characteristics","volume":"198","author":"Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.13031\/aea.14031","article-title":"Droplet Deposition Behavior on a Pear Leaf Surface under Wind-Induced Vibration","volume":"36","author":"Xi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Eng. Agric."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2024.108634","article-title":"Development of an Energy-Saving PWM Driving Method for Precision Pesticide Application Using Adjustable Frequency and Characterization of Spray","volume":"217","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_130","first-page":"32","article-title":"Advanced Pressure Regulation System for Agricultural Sprayers Using Model Predictive Control","volume":"6","author":"Hussain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pak. J. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11285","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2026.3702907","article-title":"Real-Time Output Linearization in Adaptive Predictive Control for Variable Rate Control of Agricultural Sprayers","volume":"23","author":"Schultz","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, C., Zhang, W., Li, J., Yu, C., Qi, L., and Zhang, B. (2025). Design and Experiment of a Variable-Rate Spraying System Based on RBFNN-SMC Control. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15232444"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Y., He, X., Shi, H., Yang, S.X., Song, L., and Li, P. (2025). Design and Development of a Precision Spraying Control System for Orchards Based on Machine Vision Detection. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25123799"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3590","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.8063","article-title":"Evaluating the Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Spray Applications in Mountain Nanguo Pear Orchards","volume":"80","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bing, Q., Zhang, R., Zhang, L., Li, L., and Chen, L. (2025). UAV-SfM Photogrammetry for Canopy Characterization toward Unmanned Aerial Spraying Systems Precision Pesticide Application in an Orchard. Drones, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones9020151"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icheatmasstransfer.2026.111650","article-title":"Universal Scaling of Droplet Size Distributions and Inertial Drift Thresholds in Crossflow Sprays","volume":"178","author":"Ansaripour","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015315","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0018667","article-title":"Drop Size Measurement Techniques for Sprays: Comparison of Image Analysis, Phase Doppler Particle Analysis, and Laser Diffraction","volume":"11","author":"Sijs","year":"2021","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Wang, W., Lei, X., Wang, S., Li, X., and Norton, T. (2022). Canopy Segmentation Method for Determining the Spray Deposition Rate in Orchards. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12051195"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C., Xue, X., Zhou, Q., Gu, W., Zhang, S., and Wu, C. (2023). Fixed Spraying Systems Application in Citrus Orchards: Nozzle Type and Nozzle Position Effects on Droplet Deposition and Pest Control. Agronomy, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy13112828"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154204","article-title":"Pesticide Dose Based on Canopy Characteristics in Apple Trees: Reducing Environmental Risk by Reducing the Amount of Pesticide While Maintaining Pest and Disease Control Efficacy","volume":"826","author":"Xun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8589","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-38088-4","article-title":"Optimization of Specific Spray Volume for Spray Application in Pomegranate Orchard Using Response Surface Methodology","volume":"16","author":"Thorat","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2023.107981","article-title":"Drift Reduction in Orchards through the Use of an Autonomous UAV System","volume":"211","author":"Barrera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"166","article-title":"Design and Experiment of a Hydraulic Lifting Wind Field Test Platform for Crop Protection UAS","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.13031\/aea.13221","article-title":"Numerical Simulation and Experimental Verification of the Deposition Concentration of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"35","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Eng. Agric."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, J., Cai, J., Ouyang, J., Xiao, L., and Qiu, B. (2024). The Influence of Electrostatic Spraying with Waist-Shaped Charging Devices on the Distribution of Long-Range Air-Assisted Spray in Greenhouses. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14102278"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, X., Dong, X., Ma, J., Liu, K., Ahmed, S., Lin, J., Ahmad, F., and Qiu, B. (2021). Evaluation and Experiment of Flight Parameter Quality of the Plant Protection UAV Based on Laser Tracker. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11070628"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pachuta, A., Berner, B., Chojnacki, J., Moitzi, G., Dvorak, J., Keutgen, A., Najser, J., Kielar, J., Najser, T., and Mikeska, M. (2023). Propellers Spin Rate Effect of a Spraying Drone on Quality of Liquid Deposition in a Crown of Young Spruce. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13081584"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157292","article-title":"UAV-spray application in vineyards: Flight modes and spray system adjustment effects on canopy deposit, coverage, and off-target losses","volume":"845","author":"Biglia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20240021","DOI":"10.1590\/1809-4430-eng.agric.v44e20240021\/2024","article-title":"Spray deposition from an unmanned aerial vehicle on a coffee crop","volume":"44","author":"Lopes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Agr\u00edc."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Li, Q., Hu, J., Liu, C., Zhao, S., Zhang, W., and Wang, Y. (2025). An Experimental Study on the Charging Effects and Atomization Characteristics of a Two-Stage Induction-Type Electrostatic Spraying System for Aerial Plant Protection. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15071641"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-023-09999-3","article-title":"Generalized data-driven optimal path planning framework for uniform coverage missions using crop spraying UAVs","volume":"24","author":"Nanavati","year":"2023","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, S., Qiu, B., Ahmad, F., Kong, C.W., and Xin, H. (2021). A State-of-the-Art Analysis of Obstacle Avoidance Methods from the Perspective of an Agricultural Sprayer UAV\u2019s Operation Scenario. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11061069"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, S., Qiu, B., Kong, C.W., Xin, H., Ahmad, F., and Lin, J. (2022). A Data-Driven Dynamic Obstacle Avoidance Method for Liquid-Carrying Plant Protection UAVs. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12040873"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cie.2022.108125","article-title":"Coverage path planning for spraying drones","volume":"168","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sahni, R.K., Kumar, S.P., Thorat, D., Sanodiya, R., Soni, S., Yumnam, C., and Chaudhary, V.P. (2025). Comparative Assessment of the Efficacy of Drone Spraying and Gun Spraying for Nano-Urea Application in a Maize Crop. Drones, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones10010001"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.56093\/ijas.v95i1.155906","article-title":"A study on droplet deposition of nano DAP using unmanned aerial hybrid sprayer on peanut (Arachis hypogaea) crop","volume":"95","author":"Rajesh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Indian J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_157","first-page":"76","article-title":"Optimized Design and Test for a Pendulum Suspension of the Crop Spray Boom in Dynamic Conditions Based on a Six DOF Motion Simulator","volume":"11","author":"Cui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Nie, Z., Chen, Y., Ge, D., and Li, M. (2023). Development of Boom Posture Adjustment and Control System for Wide Spray Boom. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13112162"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3964","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.70520","article-title":"Design of an AI-assisted autonomous orchard sprayer with dual spraying mechanisms","volume":"82","author":"Cakmak","year":"2026","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2023.09.012","article-title":"Force and Motion Behaviour of Crop Leaves During Spraying","volume":"235","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2018.12.004","article-title":"Mechanical Interaction Between a Canopy Opener and Rice Stalks Based on the Transient Dynamic Analysis","volume":"178","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-024-10166-5","article-title":"Assessment of spray patterns and efficiency of an unmanned sprayer used in planar growing systems","volume":"25","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, S., Ou, M., Du, W., Yang, X., Dong, X., Jiang, L., Zhang, T., Ding, S., and Jia, W. (2023). Effects of sprayer speed, spray distance, and nozzle arrangement angle on low-flow air-assisted spray deposition. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1184244"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miao, Y., Chen, X., Gong, Y., Liu, D., Chen, J., Wang, G., and Zhang, X. (2023). Design and test of powerful air-assisted sprayer for high stalk crops. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1266791"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-026-10331-y","article-title":"A real-time variable rate air and liquid sprayer for orchard applications","volume":"27","author":"Itmec","year":"2026","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.13031\/trans.14143","article-title":"The Motion of Strawberry Leaves in an Air-Assisted Spray Field and Its Influence on Droplet Deposition","volume":"64","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. ASABE"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arakawa, T., and Kamio, S. (2023). Control Efficacy of UAV-Based Ultra-Low-Volume Application of Pesticide in Chestnut Orchards. Plants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants12142597"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gatkal, N.R., Nalawade, S.M., Shelke, M.S., Deshmukh, M.S., Bhanage, G.B., More, N.M., Sahni, R.K., and Mikeska, M. (2025). Effect of operational parameters on spray performance and drift characteristics of a UAV-based agrochemical application in pigeon pea crop to control thrips. Front. Plant Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2025.1570272"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.114759","article-title":"Measurement of droplets characteristics of UAV based spraying system using imaging techniques and prediction by GWO-ANN model","volume":"234","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41521","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-25353-1","article-title":"Performance evaluation of spraying drones compared to boom sprayers for spray applications","volume":"15","author":"Safaeinezhad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2023.108104","article-title":"Construction and testing of a model for predicting droplet deposition based on Gaussian process regression","volume":"212","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, J., Wang, Z., Zhai, C., Gu, C., Zheng, K., Li, X., Jiang, R., and Xiao, K. (2025). Modeling of Droplet Deposition in Air-Assisted Spraying. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15071580"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Z., Zhang, J., Chen, L., Wang, Z., Wang, H., and Wang, X. (2024). Study on Deposition Characteristics of the Electrostatic Sprayer for Pesticide Application in Greenhouse Tomato Crops. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14111981"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2020.105502","article-title":"Development and Test of an Autonomous Air-Assisted Sprayer Based on Single Hanging Track for Solar Greenhouse","volume":"142","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_175","first-page":"79","article-title":"Effects of Droplet Size and Spray Interval on Root-to-Shoot Ratio, Photosynthesis Efficiency, and Nutritional Quality of Aeroponically Grown Butterhead Lettuce","volume":"15","author":"Tunio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s00271-025-01073-2","article-title":"Temperature-Responsive Regulation of Combined Drip and Micro-Sprinkler Systems in Greenhouses: An EWM-TOPSIS Approach for Enhancing Tomato Heat Resilience and Irrigation Efficiency","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Irig. Sci."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scienta.2022.111441","article-title":"Effect of Micro\u2013Spray on Plant Growth and Chlorophyll Fluorescence Parameter of Tomato Under High Temperature Condition in a Greenhouse","volume":"306","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Hortic."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, K., Zhao, X., Han, C., He, Y., Zhai, C., and Zhao, C. (2023). Design and Experiment of an Automatic Row-Oriented Spraying System Based on Machine Vision for Early-Stage Maize Crops. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13030691"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Y., Yang, Z., Xu, X., Shen, D., Jiang, T., Xie, B., and Duan, J. (2023). Wetting and Deposition Characteristics of Air-Assisted Spray Droplet on Large Broad-Leaved Crop Canopy. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1079703"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2022.107381","article-title":"Use of Ultrasound Anemometers to Study the Influence of Air Currents Generated by a Sprayer with an Electronic Control Airflow System on Foliar Coverage: Effect of Droplet Size","volume":"202","author":"Salas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2023.106444","article-title":"An Angle Correction Method Based on the Influence of Angle and Travel Speed on Deposition in the Air-Assisted Spray","volume":"175","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J., Dong, X., and Qiu, B. (2024). Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Deposition Coverage of Air-Assisted Electrostatic Spray on Tomato Leaves. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14061108"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Chen, J., Guo, J., and Qiu, B. (2024). Numerical Simulation and Validation of Droplet Deposition on Tomato Leaf Surface Under Air-Assisted Spraying. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14081661"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, S., Xu, X., Liu, J., Guo, J., Guan, R., Zhou, Z., Lan, Y., and Chen, S. (2024). Movement Characteristics of Droplet Deposition in Flat Spray Nozzle for Agricultural UAVs. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture14111994"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, S., Xin, H., Faheem, M., and Qiu, B. (2022). Stability Analysis of a Sprayer UAV with a Liquid Tank with Different Outer Shapes and Inner Structures. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12030379"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, F., Qiu, B., Dong, X., Yi, K., Wang, Q., Jiang, C., and Huang, X. (2024). Design and Development of a Side Spray Device for UAVs to Improve Spray Coverage in Obstacle Neighborhoods. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14092002"},{"key":"ref_187","first-page":"72","article-title":"Design and Experiment of Electro Hydraulic Active Suspension for Controlling the Rolling Motion of Spray Boom","volume":"12","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jing, L., and Wei, X. (2022). Spray Deposition and Distribution on Rice as Affected by a Boom Sprayer with a Canopy-Opening Device. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13010094"},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43583","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3271973","article-title":"2D LiDAR-Based System for Canopy Sensing in Smart Spraying Applications","volume":"11","author":"Baltazar","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tunio, M.H., Gao, J., Lakhiar, I.A., Solangi, K.A., Qureshi, W.A., Shaikh, S.A., and Chen, J. (2021). Influence of Atomization Nozzles and Spraying Intervals on Growth, Biomass Yield, and Nutrient Uptake of Butter-Head Lettuce Under Aeroponics System. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11010097"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2024.106689","article-title":"Anti-drift performance of a hooded spray system for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)\u2013maize (Zea mays L.) strip intercropping","volume":"181","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., He, X., Xiao, Y., Jiao, T., and Li, W. (2023). Design and Experimental Verification of Targeted and Variable Sprayer for the Potato. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13040797"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez, P.R., and Zhang, H. (2022). Evaluation of a CNN-Based Modular Precision Sprayer in Broadcast-Seeded Field. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22249723"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1007\/s12355-026-01742-2","article-title":"Site-Specific UAV Spraying Versus Conventional Weed Control in Sugarcane: Effects on Herbicide Use, Efficiency, and Environmental Impact","volume":"28","author":"Panduangnat","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sugar Tech"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2025.110690","article-title":"Design and development of industrial prototype of spot specific orchard sprayer using ultrasonic sensing system and advanced pressure control mechanism","volume":"237","author":"Ahmed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-023-10007-x","article-title":"Advanced spraying systems to improve pesticide saving and reduce spray drift for apple orchards","volume":"24","author":"Xun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, M.S., Alam, M., Tufail, M., Khan, M.U., Gunes, A., Salah, B., Nasir, F.E., Saleem, W., and Khan, M.T. (2022). TobSet: A New Tobacco Crop and Weeds Image Dataset and Its Utilization for Vision-Based Spraying by Agricultural Robots. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031308"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, H., Zhao, X., Wu, H., Zheng, S., Zheng, K., and Zhai, C. (2022). Design and Experimental Verification of the YOLOV5 Model Implanted with a Transformer Module for Target-Oriented Spraying in Cabbage Farming. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12102551"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7189","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.70539","article-title":"Dynamics of spray deposition pattern with UAV-based herbicide application for effective weed management in sugarcane crop","volume":"82","author":"Modi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morales-Rodriguez, P.A., Cano Cano, E., Villena, J., and Lopez-Perales, J.A. (2022). A Comparison between Conventional Sprayers and New UAV Sprayers: A Study Case of Vineyards and Olives in Extremadura (Spain). Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12061307"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6053","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.8334","article-title":"Assessing the potential spray drift of a six-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle sprayer using a test bench and airborne drift collectors under low wind velocities: Impact of atomization characteristics and application parameters","volume":"80","author":"Wongsuk","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4690","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.8828","article-title":"Does the self-developed fatty acid esters-based aerial spray adjuvant really work on improving the targetability of pesticide liquid sprayed by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)?","volume":"81","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Zou, A., Hu, J., Liu, C., Zhao, S., Li, Q., Zhang, W., and Wang, Y. (2025). Agricultural Electrostatic Spraying Electrode Corrosion Degradation Mechanisms: A Multi-Parameter Coupling Model. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15131348"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Chen, Y., Wei, W., Hu, Z., and Li, P. (2021). Optimization Design of Spray Cooling Fan Based on CFD Simulation and Field Experiment for Horticultural Crops. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11060566"},{"key":"ref_205","first-page":"4149","article-title":"A Computational Framework for Precise Aerial Agricultural Spray Delivery Processes","volume":"31","author":"Betancourt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Bortoli, L., Marsi, S., Marinello, F., Carrato, S., Ramponi, G., and Gallina, P. (2022). Structure from Linear Motion (SfLM): An On-the-Go Canopy Profiling System Based on Off-the-Shelf RGB Cameras for Effective Sprayers Control. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12061276"},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Liang, Q., Zeng, T., Zhang, X., Fu, W., and Lan, Y. (2022). Drift Potential Characteristics of a Flat Fan Nozzle: A Numerical and Experimental Study. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12126092"},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjche.2021.06.011","article-title":"Rapid velocity reduction and drift potential assessment of off-nozzle pesticide droplets","volume":"46","author":"Xue","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Q., Shan, C., Zhang, H., Song, C., and Lan, Y. (2023). Evaluation of Liquid Atomization and Spray Drift Reduction of Hydraulic Nozzles with Four Spray Adjuvant Solutions. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13020236"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ou, M., Dai, S., Jing, X., Jia, W., Dong, X., Wang, Y., and Wu, M. (2025). Study on Spray Deposition Effect of a New High-Clearance Air-Assisted Electrostatic Sprayer. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15131331"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, Y., Lan, Y., Wang, G., Hussain, M., Wang, H., Yu, X., Shan, C., Wang, B., and Song, C. (2023). Evaluation of the deposition and distribution of spray droplets in citrus orchards by plant protection drones. Front. Plant Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2023.1303669"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Z., Cui, L., Yan, X., Han, Y., Yang, W., Zhan, Y., Wu, J., Qin, Y., Chen, P., and Lan, Y. (2025). Field evaluation of different unmanned aerial spraying systems applied to control panonychus citri in mountainous citrus orchards. Agriculture, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture15121283"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.18520\/cs\/v127\/i3\/297-306","article-title":"Optimizing the impact of spray characteristics of hybrid drone on spray deposition in cotton crops","volume":"127","author":"Rajesh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_214","first-page":"88","article-title":"Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-assisted pesticide application for pest and disease prevention and control in rice","volume":"17","author":"Ragiman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5403\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T04:21:05Z","timestamp":1787890865000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5403"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"references-count":214,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26175403"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26175403","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]}}}