{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T13:22:23Z","timestamp":1787923343934,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Seoul R&BD Program","award":["QR250003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QR250003"]}]},{"name":"Seoul Business Agency"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/032412d97","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Seoul Metropolitan Government"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/002wfgr58","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Underground infrastructure inspection requires sensing methods capable of characterizing both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic subsurface features. This study evaluated a portable nitrogen-vacancy (NV) quantum diamond magnetometer (QDM) together with multi-frequency ground-penetrating radar (GPR; 250, 500, and 800 MHz) at a 90 m full-scale pavement test site containing documented subsurface targets. Repeated stationary QDM measurements were first conducted to characterize temporal variability and establish site-specific magnetic baselines, followed by a 1 m interval spatial survey and corresponding GPR measurements. The QDM showed reproducible spatial magnetic patterns despite substantial variability in reinforcement-dense sections, and all 10 cross-session measurements remained within \u00b11.5 standard deviations of their repeated-measurement baselines. Ferromagnetic targets produced localized magnetic responses, whereas post hoc classification using disturbance-normalized magnetic anomalies showed limited target-level discrimination (AUC = 0.495). GPR likewise showed limited post hoc target classification (500 MHz AUC = 0.472), but section-level radar responses differed significantly across pavement environments. The two modalities exhibited contrasting section-level responses while showing weak and inconsistent point-level correspondence. These results indicate that NV-diamond magnetometry and GPR provide complementary physical information, while repeated magnetic measurements are important for interpreting QDM observations under heterogeneous field conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175439","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T12:27:46Z","timestamp":1787920066000},"page":"5439","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reproducibility-Based Field Validation of Complementary Subsurface Sensing Using a Quantum Diamond Magnetometer and Multi-Frequency Ground-Penetrating Radar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9464-4397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chang-Geun","family":"Oh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Aerospace Industrial and Systems Engineering, Hanseo University, Taean 32158, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5035-3779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Byunghoon","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Energy Resources Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Dong-Hoon","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Kangwon National University, Samcheok 25913, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2184102","article-title":"Geophysical applications to detect sinkholes and ground subsidence","volume":"25","author":"Dobecki","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lead. 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