{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T05:16:57Z","timestamp":1788239817175,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787961600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MUR PNRR funds","award":["38-411-31-DOT13BN7S7-1302"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["38-411-31-DOT13BN7S7-1302"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["CUP E66E23000110001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP E66E23000110001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["CUP E66E23000110001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP E66E23000110001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/019w4f821","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The vestibular system contributes to cardiovascular regulation during changes in gravitational load (e.g., postural transitions, microgravity), in vestibular disorders, and during vestibular stimulations. Studies employing sinusoidal galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) reported conflicting autonomic responses, and recent evidence suggests that vestibular afferents encode GVS in a non-linear fashion. Whether this non-linear encoding results in polarity-dependent autonomic responses and whether such responses interact with concurrent cognitive demand remains unknown. To investigate these issues, we used sinusoidal GVS to modulate vestibular input in 35 healthy individuals while physiological signals were recorded using a wearable device. Participants completed a working memory task, preceded and followed by rest periods, under three counterbalanced conditions: right-anodal\/left-cathodal GVS (RGVS), left-anodal\/right-cathodal GVS (LGVS), and Sham GVS. Perceived stress was repeatedly assessed. During task performance, heart rate increased with RGVS and decreased with LGVS relative to Sham (p = 0.001) and perceived stress increased across all conditions (p &lt; 0.001). Post-task, heart rate remained elevated in RGVS compared to LGVS (p = 0.006), and stress ratings decreased in LGVS compared to the other conditions (p &lt; 0.01). These findings indicate that sinusoidal GVS induces polarity-dependent autonomic effects, primarily during concurrent cognitive demand. This pattern may reflect non-linear vestibular encoding, with its emergence being potentially modulated by attentional shifts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175470","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T05:55:56Z","timestamp":1788155756000},"page":"5470","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Polarity-Dependent Effects of Sinusoidal Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation on Cardiovascular Responses During Cognitive Load"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1841-4706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudio","family":"Zavattaro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Space, Attention, and Action (SAN) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Physics, University of Trento, Via Sommarive 14, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4355-9042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hilary","family":"Serra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space, Attention, and Action (SAN) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9252-3848","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Cirillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space, Attention, and Action (SAN) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5630-0360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Cento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space, Attention, and Action (SAN) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7858-0653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Gammeri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space, Attention, and Action (SAN) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Raffaella","family":"Ricci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Space, Attention, and Action (SAN) Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Via Verdi 10, 10124 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H2399","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.2000.279.5.H2399","article-title":"Interaction of the Vestibular System and Baroreflexes on Sympathetic Nerve Activity in Humans","volume":"279","author":"Ray","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. 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