{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T12:15:47Z","timestamp":1788264947336,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52475287"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52475287"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52475287"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52475287"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smart textile interfaces hold promise for battery-free wearable interaction, yet their adoption is limited by complex fabrication and insufficient on-body evaluation. We present TriboTex, a low-cost spray-patterning workflow that forms nylon\u2013Cu\u2013nylon triboelectric stacks on cotton textiles using laser-cut PET stencils and commercially available materials. The core consumables cost approximately USD 0.003\/cm2, and sensor geometry can be rapidly iterated by modifying only the digital stencil. Controlled characterization across nine devices from three fabrication batches showed a peak open-circuit voltage of 52.3 V and a maximum power density of 1870 \u00b5W\/m2 at 4 G\u03a9. The output retained 96.1% of its initial voltage after 1000 bending cycles and 94.2% after 24 h of simplified saline immersion. Three-sample environmental sweeps showed voltage amplitudes of 41.9\u201343.7 V from 15 to 45 \u00b0C, with a decrease to 27.7 V at 0 \u00b0C; the humidity response remained within 92.7\u2013104.5% of the 20% RH value over 20\u201360% RH but decreased to 19.9% at 70% RH. Two wearable prototypes were developed: a single-electrode garment sleeve recognized tap, double-tap, and swipe gestures with 95.0% accuracy across 1200 trials from 12 participants; a single-electrode insole generated action-dependent peak voltages up to 123 V under repeated foot loading and was connected through a rectification and voltage-regulation module to charge a battery. Across the two 12-participant studies, attachment and fit stability emerged as shared integration requirements, while participant feedback and controlled humidity measurements highlighted moisture management as a priority for reliable on-body sensing and energy capture. The primary contribution is an accessible, low-cost, and geometry-flexible route for early-stage wearable sensing experiments and application demonstrations, supported by documented fabrication, electrical characterization, and human-centered evaluation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175554","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T11:33:32Z","timestamp":1788262412000},"page":"5554","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Low-Cost Spray-Patterned Triboelectric Textiles for Wearable Interaction and Energy Harvesting"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4532-0226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hebo","family":"Gong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027\u200c, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Shijian","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027\u200c, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Ping","family":"Shan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027\u200c, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2012.01.004","article-title":"Flexible triboelectric generator","volume":"1","author":"Fan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2014.10.034","article-title":"Triboelectric nanogenerators as self-powered active sensors","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5190","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b02477","article-title":"Screen-Printed Washable Electronic Textiles as Self-Powered Touch\/Gesture Tribo-Sensors for Intelligent Human-Machine Interaction","volume":"12","author":"Cao","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2018.12.032","article-title":"Beyond Energy Harvesting\u2014Multi-Functional Triboelectric Nanosensors on a Textile","volume":"57","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-021-00621-7","article-title":"Fully Fabric-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerators as Self-Powered Human-Machine Interactive Keyboards","volume":"13","author":"Yi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C., Zhang, L., Ding, W., Chen, L., Liu, J., Du, Z., and Yu, W. 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