{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T18:12:38Z","timestamp":1788545558900,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Physiological signal emulators support the calibration, validation, and stress testing of cardiovascular monitoring devices. However, many existing systems generate electrocardiography (ECG) or photoplethysmography (PPG) independently and offer limited control over arrhythmia detection and ECG\u2013PPG coupling. This study presents a programmable physiological signal emulator that integrates a unified event-driven ECG\u2013PPG model with synchronized multichannel hardware. The model represents atrial pacing, atrioventricular conduction, and ventricular activation as separate functional blocks, enabling normal sinus rhythm, first-degree atrioventricular block, second-degree atrioventricular block Mobitz I, complete atrioventricular block, atrial tachycardia, and ventricular tachycardia. A Gaussian-based ECG is generated from the atrial and ventricular event sequences, while a multi-Gaussian PPG waveform is derived from ventricular activation using a beat-class-dependent electromechanical delay. The same processing architecture supports playback of recorded 12-lead clinical ECG data through an inverse lead transformation. The hardware uses an STM32F407VET6 microcontroller and MCP4921 digital-to-analog converters (DACs) to generate 10 synchronized analog outputs, comprising 09 ECG electrodes and 01 PPG channel. Validation covered physiological timing, analog-chain performance, and end-to-end signal reproduction. PR interval errors relative to a commercial electrocardiograph were 1.23 ms for normal sinus rhythm and 1.66 ms for first-degree atrioventricular block. The measured beat-to-beat PR increment during Mobitz I conduction was 40.02\u00b10.04 ms for a programmed value of 40 ms. At commanded amplitudes of at least 800 mV, both output channels achieved absolute amplitude errors below 0.60%, total harmonic distortion below 1%, and signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) above 30 dB. Inter-channel R-peak skew remained below the 2 ms sampling interval, and all monitored metrics varied by less than 1.5% during 60 min of continuous operation. Reproduction of a clinical 12-lead recording yielded per-lead R2 values of 0.967\u20130.986 and a cycle-to-cycle correlation of 0.996. The emulator also reproduced amplitude-dependent bias in automated interval measurements and interpretation labels. These results demonstrate a low-cost, open-source platform for reproducible device calibration, algorithm stress testing, medical training, and physiological signal processing research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T14:35:29Z","timestamp":1788359729000},"page":"5578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An ECG\u2013PPG Physiological Signal Emulator for Calibration and Validation of Cardiovascular Monitoring Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9266-493X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thanh Ven","family":"Huynh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Laboratory, Faculty of Applied Science, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, Dien Hong Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 72409, Vietnam"},{"name":"Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Xuan Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 71308, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0351-8193","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Trung Nghia","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Laboratory, Faculty of Applied Science, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, Dien Hong Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 72409, Vietnam"},{"name":"Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Xuan Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 71308, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9131-4491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anh Tu","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Laboratory, Faculty of Applied Science, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, Dien Hong Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 72409, Vietnam"},{"name":"Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Xuan Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 71308, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.70445\/gjmdsa.1.1.2024.100-110","article-title":"Cardiovascular diseases: Understanding the leading cause of death worldwide","volume":"1","author":"Naveed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Glob. 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