{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T05:07:10Z","timestamp":1788930430155,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Basic Research Fund for Provincial Scientific Research Institutes of Sichuan Province","award":["2026JDKY002610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2026JDKY002610"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004829","name":"Science and Technology Department of Sichuan Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024YFFK0126"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFFK0126"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004829","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2024YFFK0126"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFFK0126"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04323m874","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a method for monitoring damage evolution at sandstone-binding material interfaces by combining a Vision Transformer (ViT) deep learning model with piezoelectric ultrasonic monitoring. Direct shear tests were conducted on bonded weak sandstone specimens. The results indicate that the damage evolution process can be divided into four stages: initial elastic, compaction and stabilization, crack propagation and coalescence, and frictional sliding and interlocking. Ultrasonic signals acquired during loading reveal that interface damage evolution is in good agreement with the time-domain waveforms, Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) time\u2013frequency spectra, and wavelet packet energy. Based on the ViT-Small\/16 backbone, a ViT model with adaptive frequency-feature extraction was developed for small-sample and cross-specimen interfacial damage-stage identification, using the Stage I health observations of each specimen prior to loading as the reference. Results from five repeated runs with different random seeds show that the method achieved an accuracy of 93.23% \u00b1 0.72% and an F1-score of 92.32% \u00b1 0.90%, demonstrating favorable recognition performance and stability under the current condition. This study offers insights into the damage monitoring and subsequent warning of similar binary interfaces in tunnel engineering, geotechnical engineering, and stone cultural heritage conservation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T15:39:47Z","timestamp":1788363587000},"page":"5586","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Intelligent Monitoring of Shear Damage Evolution at Bonded Sandstone Interfaces Based on ViT and Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Testing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5481-6898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiancheng","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of History and Culture, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China"},{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongbo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongshan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of History and Culture, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongyu","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhenbin","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Museum, Chengdu 610000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"32","article-title":"Seismic analysis and design of tunnels within fault ground: A review","volume":"1","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Deep Undergr. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2014.07.017","article-title":"Seismic damage mechanism and dynamic deformation characteristic analysis of mountain tunnel after wenchuan earthquake","volume":"180","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2023.105121","article-title":"Response of acoustic emission and vibration monitoring data during rock block collapse in the tunnel: Small- and large-scale experiments study","volume":"137","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012111","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/833\/1\/012111","article-title":"Assessment of collapse mechanism of a high speed railway tunnel (t341 tunnel, Turkey)","volume":"833","author":"Aygar","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, W.J., Huang, Q.B., and Chen, X. (2022). Physical model test on the interface of loess fill slope. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11081372"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.126110","article-title":"Enhanced mechanical properties and environmental erosion resistance with metakaolin in a kind of chinese traditional lime-based mortar","volume":"317","author":"Qiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"28","article-title":"The application of acoustic computer tomography technology in sounding of internal structure in east abutment, Luding bridge","volume":"13","author":"He","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sci. Conserv. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"64","article-title":"Research on Interfacial Damage Detection of Steel-Concrete Composite Structures with Ultrasonic CT Imaging Method","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Prog. Steel Build. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"130","article-title":"Interface damage pattern recognition of concrete-filled steel tubes based on principal components of acoustic emission signals","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Water Resour. Water Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2025.109291","article-title":"Research on compressive failure and damage mechanism of concrete-granite composites with different roughness coefficient by nmr and dic techniques","volume":"170","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2014.11.014","article-title":"Experimental study on debonding of shotcrete with acoustic emission during freezing and thawing cycle","volume":"111","author":"Mainali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8819","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-025-04599-1","article-title":"Shear failure mechanism of fiber-reinforced concrete\u2013rock interface under freeze\u2013thaw conditions","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.118962","article-title":"Investigation on meso-debonding process of the sandstone\u2013concrete interface induced by freeze\u2013thaw cycles using nmr technology","volume":"252","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.111191","article-title":"Damage characteristics and mechanisms of shear strength at the interface between fiber-reinforced concrete and rock under freeze-thaw cycles","volume":"98","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"614","article-title":"Fracture Mechanism Evaluation of UHPC-NC Interface Based on Multiscale Interface Bond Characterization and Numerical Simulation","volume":"46","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. Q. Mech."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"860","article-title":"Analysis of Meso-damage Evolution and Deformation Fields at Adhesive Interfaces Based on In-situ Micro-CT","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chin. J. Energ. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"783","article-title":"Study on the shear acoustic emission characteristics of the granite-concrete bonding interface with different roughness","volume":"40","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2016.10.031","article-title":"Damage analysis of concrete structures by means of acoustic emissions technique","volume":"115","author":"Scuro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-024-03856-z","article-title":"Experimental study on shear characteristics of fiber-reinforced shotcrete-rock interface under high-and-variable temperature","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2024.109792","article-title":"Revealing evolution law and failure mechanism of interface damage in concrete-encased cfst columns by acoustic emission technology","volume":"93","author":"Shen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/s40948-023-00612-5","article-title":"Cumulative damage and bearing capacity attenuation law of anchorage structure interface under cyclic loading and unloading","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geomech. Geophys. Geo-Energy Geo-Resour."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2004.07.009","article-title":"Wave propagation approach for nde using surface bonded piezoceramics","volume":"38","author":"Bhalla","year":"2005","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103888","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103888","article-title":"Smart sensing for post-earthquake damage quantification in rc members using piezoceramic transducers","volume":"131","author":"Chiu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025113","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/abb7a1","article-title":"Measurement and evaluation of soft soil strength development during freeze-thaw process based on electromechanical impedance technique","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"690\u2013697+841\u2013842","article-title":"Method of Using Piezoelectric Ceramics to Detect the Grouting Quality of Prestressed Pipelines","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Vib. Meas. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, C., Yang, C., Ma, S.L., and Xu, X.L. (2020). Feasibility study on grouting compactness detection in sleeves using piezoelectric transducers. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10010149"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"576","article-title":"Freezing-thawing Damage Detection of Fiber Ceramsite Concrete Based on Piezoelectric Sensors","volume":"24","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109646","article-title":"Feasibility of piezoceramic transducer-enabled active sensing for the monitoring cross-shaped concrete filled steel tubular (ccfst) columns under cyclic loading","volume":"182","author":"Zhai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.165","article-title":"Investigation of deterioration in corroding reinforced concrete beams using active and passive techniques","volume":"161","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.141546","article-title":"Piezoelectric-enabled wave propagation method for detecting and assessing corrosion damage evolution in reinforced concrete shield tunnel lining","volume":"481","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04018115","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)AS.1943-5525.0000939","article-title":"Real-time monitoring of early-age concrete strength using piezoceramic-based smart aggregates","volume":"32","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Aerosp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085025","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/8\/085025","article-title":"Very early age concrete hydration characterization monitoring using piezoceramic based smart aggregates","volume":"22","author":"Kong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.126400","article-title":"Strength gain monitoring and construction quality evaluation on non-dispersible underwater concrete using pzt sensors","volume":"322","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2023.112657","article-title":"Integrating pzt-enabled active sensing with deep learning techniques for automatic monitoring and assessment of early-age concrete strength","volume":"211","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921706057978","article-title":"Debond detection using embedded piezoelectric elements in reinforced concrete structures-part i: Experiment","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024002","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/acae0f","article-title":"Bonding performance monitoring between cfrp and timber column interfaces based on piezoelectric ceramics","volume":"32","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Zhang, M., Yin, X.F., Huang, Z., and Wang, L. (2020). Debonding detection of reinforced concrete (rc) beam with near-surface mounted (nsm) pre-stressed carbon fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp) plates using embedded piezoceramic smart aggregates (sas). Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10010050"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2011.07.029","article-title":"Active interface debonding detection of a concrete-filled steel tube with piezoelectric technologies using wavelet packet analysis","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2025.109337","article-title":"Monitoring the interfacial debonding damage of composite concrete beams using piezoelectric smart aggregates","volume":"79","author":"Qian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.115522","article-title":"Monitoring of interface separation damage in buckling-restrained steel plate shear walls using piezoelectric based smart aggregates under cyclic loading","volume":"239","author":"Qian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2018.07.047","article-title":"Debonding detection for rectangular cfst using surface wave measurement: Test and multi-physical fields numerical simulation","volume":"117","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2024.117725","article-title":"Push-out test behavior and damage detection of steel-uhpc composite using pzt sensing","volume":"305","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"616","article-title":"Experimental study on monitoring interface damage of steel-concrete composite structure","volume":"35","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2025.109730","article-title":"Interface damage identification of composite steel bridge decks based on ae and deep learning techniques","volume":"80","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2022.109642","article-title":"On the explainability of convolutional neural networks processing ultrasonic guided waves for damage diagnosis","volume":"183","author":"Lomazzi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2026.111060","article-title":"Damage mode identification for bonding interface of steel-uhpc composite structures based on acoustic emission and fuzzy c-means unsupervised clustering","volume":"84","author":"Hu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2022.107273","article-title":"Identification of mixed mode damage types on rock-concrete interface under cyclic loading","volume":"166","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2026.122873","article-title":"Integration of electromechanical impedance and hybrid deep learning techniques for automated identification of cfrp\u2013concrete interfacial damage induced by wet\u2013dry cycling","volume":"361","author":"Deng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04026010","DOI":"10.1061\/JCCEE5.CPENG-7116","article-title":"A dual-domain deep convolutional variational autoencoder framework for unsupervised structural health monitoring using vision-based vibration analysis","volume":"40","author":"Mostofi","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Comput. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131865","article-title":"Intelligent monitoring of concrete-rock interface debonding via ultrasonic measurement integrated with convolutional neural network","volume":"400","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3214","DOI":"10.1177\/14759217241268989","article-title":"A method for detection of delamination depth position within composite laminates based on 2d continuous wavelet transform and cnn","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2026.111059","article-title":"Bayesian optimization-enhanced vision transformer for damage detection in steel truss structures using continuous wavelet transform analysis","volume":"85","year":"2026","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.20517\/ir.2024.13","article-title":"Structural damage identification method based on swin transformer and continuous wavelet transform","volume":"4","author":"Xin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Intell. Robot."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2025.119753","article-title":"Damage localization in curved composite laminates in thermal conditions using gramian angular field and improved convolutional vision transformer","volume":"374","author":"Du","year":"2025","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, H.J., Xu, X.B., and Liu, C. (2025, January 21\u201323). Structural health monitoring of cfrp composite structures using a hybrid cnn-vision transformer model. Proceedings of the 2025 International Conference on Sensing, Measurement & Data Analytics in the era of Artificial Intelligence (ICSMD), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSMD67131.2025.11365359"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"75","article-title":"Damage classification of CFRP-PMI sandwich structure materials based on GASF-ViT-HFF","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nondestruct. Test."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1","article-title":"Harmonic extraction method with continuous wavelet transform based on the prior knowledge of wavelength modulation spectroscopy and shift strategy","volume":"74","author":"Wan","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Wen, C.W., Zeng, X.H., Zhu, H.S., Long, G.C., Xie, Y.J., Zeng, Y.P., and Xu, J.M. (2026). Effects of polyether-modified silicone oil on the interfacial bonding properties of epoxy resin-cement mortar. J. Railw. Sci. Eng., 1\u201311."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2013). Standard for Test Methods of Engineering Rock Mass (Standard No. GB\/T 50266-2013). Available online: https:\/\/www.ndls.org.cn\/standard\/detail\/20ece04cc6902d96263f07a7a94ab18e."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"1954","article-title":"Experimental study on shear characteristics and pore structure evolution characteristics of soil-rock mixture-concrete interface during freeze-thaw cycles","volume":"54","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cent. South Univ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1096","article-title":"Study on macro-meso shear transfixion mechanisms and mechanical properties of shear band-bedrock interfaces of dangerous rock on reservoir bank","volume":"43","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.078","article-title":"Influence of surface roughness and hydrophilicity on bonding strength of concrete-rock interface","volume":"213","author":"Shen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Dosovitskiy, A., Beyer, L., Kolesnikov, A., Weissenborn, D., Zhai, X.H., Unterthiner, T., Dehghani, M., Minderer, M., Heigold, G., and Gelly, S. (2021). An image is worth 16 \u00d7 16 words: Transformers for image recognition at scale. arXiv."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5586\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T04:20:51Z","timestamp":1788927651000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5586"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26175586"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26175586","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]}}}