{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T18:12:42Z","timestamp":1788545562788,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFC2503900"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFC2503900"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of China"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sleep respiratory monitoring plays a crucial role in the early diagnosis and health management of sleep-related respiratory disorders. However, conventional monitoring devices often suffer from some critical issues, such as poor wearing comfort and insufficient capability for long-term continuous monitoring, hindering their applications in non-invasive and prolonged sleep monitoring. In recent years, hydrogel-based mechanical sensors have attracted increasing attention for sleep respiratory monitoring owing to their outstanding flexibility, biocompatibility, mechanical compatibility with biological tissues, and excellent sensing performance, demonstrating great potential for practical applications. A comprehensive overview of recent advances in hydrogel-based mechanical sensors for sleep-related respiratory monitoring is provided in this review. The sensing mechanisms, materials, fabrication strategies, and representative applications are systematically summarized, with particular emphasis on the key factors governing sensor performance and their translation toward practical use. Furthermore, current challenges and corresponding optimization strategies are discussed. This review aims to provide valuable insights into the rational design and optimization of high-performance hydrogel-based mechanical sensors, and important strategies for the further development of advanced technologies for sleep-related respiratory monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T17:25:56Z","timestamp":1788542756000},"page":"5642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hydrogel-Based Mechanical Sensors for Sleep Respiratory Monitoring: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Yuanfeng","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sleep Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liangchao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sleep Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jian","family":"Jiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sleep Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5534-333X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taomei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sleep Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangdong","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sleep Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"},{"name":"Mental Health Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"},{"name":"National Center for Mental Disorders, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2820-7973","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yihao","family":"Long","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7402-9194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liang","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Health Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"},{"name":"National Center for Mental Disorders, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2021.05.048","article-title":"Sleep Disordered Breathing and Cardiovascular Disease: JACC State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"78","author":"Cowie","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp1816152","article-title":"Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Adults","volume":"380","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A241","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsag091.0541","article-title":"0542 Accuracy and Predictive Value of a PAD Sleep Monitoring Device Compared with In-Lab Polysomnography","volume":"49","author":"Steelman","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3425","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c22504","article-title":"Wearable Sensors for Monitoring Abnormalities in Sleep-Related Breathing","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18605","DOI":"10.1039\/D0TA06965E","article-title":"Nanocomposite hydrogel-based strain and pressure sensors: A review","volume":"8","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2025.138095","article-title":"Chitosan-based hydrogels with stretchable, self-healing, self-adhesive properties for flexible sensing applications","volume":"726","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2026.177429","article-title":"A locking-unlocking strategy enables open macroporous hydrogels for diagnosing-treating apnea","volume":"540","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Zhu, J., Wang, Z., Hu, H., and Zhang, T. (2025). Dual-Responsive Starch Hydrogels via Physicochemical Crosslinking for Wearable Pressure and Ultra-Sensitive Humidity Sensing. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25165006"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300299","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202300299","article-title":"Flexible Antiswelling Photothermal-Therapy MXene Hydrogel-Based Epidermal Sensor for Intelligent Human\u2013Machine Interfacing","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.157719","article-title":"Double-network conductive hydrogel for non-contact respiratory monitoring","volume":"502","author":"Deng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2020.116130","article-title":"Multifunctional conductive hydrogel-based flexible wearable sensors","volume":"134","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2925","DOI":"10.1039\/D3QM00109A","article-title":"Functional conductive hydrogels: From performance to flexible sensor applications","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Front."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18062","DOI":"10.1039\/D5TA01456E","article-title":"Research progress onconductive hydrogels and their applications in flexible sensors: A review","volume":"13","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-024-00672-3","article-title":"Design principles for strong and tough hydrogels","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402282","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202402282","article-title":"Toughening Hydrogels with Fibrillar Connected Double Networks","volume":"36","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmst.2022.12.031","article-title":"Anti-fatigue ionic gels for long-term multimodal respiratory abnormality monitoring","volume":"151","author":"Zha","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.148324","article-title":"Rapid preparation of dynamic-crosslinked nanocomposite hydrogel sensors with efficiency self-healing and adhesion properties for elderly health and sleep management","volume":"480","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2020.08.007","article-title":"Enhancing Biopolymer Hydrogel Functionality through Interpenetrating Networks","volume":"39","author":"Dhand","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00005","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202600005","article-title":"Mechanically Enhanced, Antibacterial, and Double-Network Hydrogel Flexible Sensors for Sleep Apnea Monitoring","volume":"22","author":"Yan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300194","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202300194","article-title":"Recent Progress in Mechanically Robust and Conductive-Hydrogel-Based Sensors","volume":"5","author":"Fan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2204686","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202204686","article-title":"Multimodal Hydrogel-Based Respiratory Monitoring System for Diagnosing Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115773","article-title":"Multimodal and flexible hydrogel-based sensors for respiratory monitoring and posture recognition","volume":"243","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3848","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.4c00836","article-title":"Research Progress of Flexible Piezoresistive Sensors Based on Polymer Porous Materials","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.157975","article-title":"High-performance gelatin-based hydrogel flexible sensor for respiratory monitoring and human\u2013machine interaction","volume":"502","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaat0098","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aat0098","article-title":"MXenes stretch hydrogel sensor performance to new limits","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.170116","article-title":"Molecularly synergistic organogel with engineered conductivity and anti-swelling unity for reliable sleep apnea monitoring","volume":"525","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2025.138406","article-title":"Skin- and hair- inspired nanofibrious hydrogel composite as multimodal sensor for polysomnographic monitoring in sleep apnea syndrome","volume":"700","author":"Shen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4507","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b08027","article-title":"Flexible Piezoelectric-Induced Pressure Sensors for Static Measurements Based on Nanowires\/Graphene Heterostructures","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3283","DOI":"10.1039\/D3TA05537J","article-title":"A biodegradable, highly sensitive and multifunctional mechanical sensor based on rGO-silk fibroin hydrogel for human motion detection and gesture recognition","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6431","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-50797-w","article-title":"Highly conductive and stretchable nanostructured ionogels for 3D printing capacitive sensors with superior performance","volume":"15","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25548","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202525548","article-title":"A \u201cPHASE\u201d Strategy for Preparing Flexible Piezoelectric Polylactic Acid Double Network Hydrogel Sensors","volume":"36","author":"Wei","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12787","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c22359","article-title":"A Controlled Biodegradable Triboelectric Nanogenerator Based on PEGDA\/Laponite Hydrogels","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.143514","article-title":"Flexible capacitive sensor based on Miura-ori structure","volume":"468","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, X., Xu, Z., Huang, J., Zhu, Y., Xi, S., Zhang, J., and Wang, X. (2026). Flexible Capacitive Pressure Sensors with Ultrasonically Engineered Cu-Filled PDMS Dielectric Layers. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26123721"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25976","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c01461","article-title":"All-Textile Wearable Capacitive Pressure Sensors Based on Cut-Pile Fabrics with Integrated Electrodes","volume":"17","author":"Motaghedi","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2010830","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202010830","article-title":"A Highly Stable and Durable Capacitive Strain Sensor Based on Dynamically Super-Tough Hydro\/Organo-Gels","volume":"31","author":"Mo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3744","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.1c07614","article-title":"A Biodegradable and Recyclable Piezoelectric Sensor Based on a Molecular Ferroelectric Embedded in a Bacterial Cellulose Hydrogel","volume":"16","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0571","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0571","article-title":"Recent Advances in Self-Powered Sensors Based on Ionic Hydrogels","volume":"8","author":"Yin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw1974","article-title":"Piezoionic mechanoreceptors: Force-induced current generation in hydrogels","volume":"376","author":"Dobashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.166522","article-title":"Indentation deformation-based triboelectric pressure sensor for high accurate sleep monitoring","volume":"521","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106008","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202106008","article-title":"Hydrogels as Soft Ionic Conductors in Flexible and Wearable Triboelectric Nanogenerators","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Y., Yang, T., Luo, H., and Zheng, Y. (2026). Triboelectric Nanogenerators Promote Self-Powered Sensing and Intelligent Monitoring. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26102984"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2024.110530","article-title":"Triboelectric nanogenerator based on well-dispersed and oxide-free liquid metal-doped conductive hydrogel as self-powered wearable sensor for respiratory and thyroid cartilage signal monitoring","volume":"134","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2026.175026","article-title":"Flexible and multimodal sensing platforms for wearable respiratory monitoring: Innovations in materials and systems for precision health","volume":"534","author":"Zha","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402853","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202402853","article-title":"Environmental Stability Stretchable Organic Hydrogel Humidity Sensor for Respiratory Monitoring with Ultrahigh Sensitivity","volume":"34","author":"Ni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-023-01091-y","article-title":"Stretchable graphene\u2013hydrogel interfaces for wearable and implantable bioelectronics","volume":"7","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Electron."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1228","DOI":"10.1002\/smm2.1228","article-title":"Readily prepared and processed multifunctional MXene nanocomposite hydrogels for smart electronics","volume":"5","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"SmartMat"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e74485","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.74485","article-title":"Ionic Conductive Organohydrogel with Multi-Environmental Stability for Machine Learning-Assisted Health Monitoring","volume":"36","author":"Ni","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200653","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202200653","article-title":"Body Temperature Enhanced Adhesive, Antibacterial, and Recyclable Ionic Hydrogel for Epidermal Electrophysiological Monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.149374","article-title":"Mechanically resilient, freeze-resistant, and antibacterial carboxymethyl cellulose\/phytic acid hydrogel sensors for respiratory monitoring","volume":"337","author":"Zhao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03986","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.202503986","article-title":"Zwitterionic Hydrogels Endow Zinc-Ion Micro-Batteries with Superior Durability for Electrophysiological Monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guan, X., Ma, X., Gao, R., Zheng, Q., Sun, C., Chen, Y., and Mu, J. (2026). Low-Temperature One-Pot Fabrication of a Dual-Ion Conductive Hydrogel for Biological Monitoring. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26072086"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.1039\/D4CS00220B","article-title":"Advances in conducting nanocomposite hydrogels for wearable biomonitoring","volume":"54","author":"Roy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.10.593","article-title":"Carbon-based nanomaterials: Synthesis and prospective applications","volume":"44","author":"Rao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2019.02.007","article-title":"Rational design of microfabricated electroconductive hydrogels for biomedical applications","volume":"92","author":"Walker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.122832","article-title":"Carbon nanotubes reinforced hydrogel as flexible strain sensor with high stretchability and mechanically toughness","volume":"382","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parajuli, D., Murali, N., K. C., D., Karki, B., Samatha, K., Kim, A.A., Park, M., and Pant, B. (2022). Advancements in MXene-Polymer Nanocomposites in Energy Storage and Biomedical Applications. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14163433"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B., Zhou, L., Wei, S., Zhu, Q., Wu, Q., and Cao, C. (2026). Nacre-Inspired Flexible MXene-Based Films for Multifunctional Applications in Supercapacitors and Piezoresistive Sensors. Sensors, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/s26123762"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206147","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202206147","article-title":"Recent Progress in Emerging Novel MXenes Based Materials and their Fascinating Sensing Applications","volume":"19","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1039\/D3TB02247A","article-title":"Advancements in MXene-based composites for electronic skins","volume":"12","author":"Iravani","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2023.108324","article-title":"Self-adhesive, self-healing, biocompatible and conductive polyacrylamide nanocomposite hydrogels for reliable strain and pressure sensors","volume":"109","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5158","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.6c01406","article-title":"Hydrogel Electronic Skin Synergistically Enhanced by Multibond Crosslinking and a Negative Poisson\u2019s Ratio Structure for Human Respiration Monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2012.10.034","article-title":"Temperature-sensitive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)\/graphene oxide nanocomposite hydrogels by in situ polymerization with improved swelling capability and mechanical behavior","volume":"49","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8478","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-52833-1","article-title":"A selective frequency damping and Janus adhesive hydrogel as bioelectronic interfaces for clinical trials","volume":"15","author":"Luo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2794","DOI":"10.1002\/cjoc.202200405","article-title":"Transient Polymer Hydrogels Based on Dynamic Covalent Borate Ester Bonds","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2007.02.014","article-title":"Preparation of a novel freeze thawed poly(vinyl alcohol) composite hydrogel for drug delivery applications","volume":"67","author":"Nugent","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.09.083","article-title":"Highly tough and ionic conductive starch\/poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels based on a universal soaking strategy","volume":"221","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1039\/D0QM00625D","article-title":"High-performance ionic conductive poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels for flexible strain sensors based on a universal soaking strategy","volume":"5","author":"Di","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Front."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56393","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c14472","article-title":"Stretchable, Healable, and Degradable Soft Ionic Microdevices Based on Multifunctional Soaking-Toughened Dual-Dynamic-Network Organohydrogel Electrolytes","volume":"12","author":"Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206242","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202206242","article-title":"One-Step Soaking Strategy toward Anti-Swelling Hydrogels with a Stiff \u201cArmor\u201d","volume":"10","author":"Dou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2708","DOI":"10.1039\/D0EE03527K","article-title":"In situ polymerization process: An essential design tool for lithium polymer batteries","volume":"14","author":"Vijayakumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28904","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6c01854","article-title":"A Self-Adhesive, Motion-Resistant Multifunctional Hydrogel Patch with Island-Bridge Design for Comprehensive Sleep Monitoring","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300185","DOI":"10.1002\/macp.202300185","article-title":"In Situ Emulsion Polymerization to Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites: A Review","volume":"224","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Macromol. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9056","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.4c01018","article-title":"In Situ Mineralization in Metal-Ion-Coordinated Polymer Hydrogels: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities","volume":"36","author":"Maqbool","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1039\/D2MH00064D","article-title":"Ultrasensitive airflow sensor prepared by electrostatic flocking for sound recognition and motion monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200571","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202200571","article-title":"Bioinspired Ultrasensitive and Flexible Airflow Sensor based on Short Carbon Fiber Network","volume":"8","author":"Shen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500143","DOI":"10.1002\/sstr.202500143","article-title":"Electrostatic Flocking: Reborn to Embrace Multifunctional Applications","volume":"6","author":"Shen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small Struct."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2024.109443","article-title":"Recent development of flexible force sensors with multiple environmental adaptations","volume":"124","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2024.101378","article-title":"Water: The soul of hydrogels","volume":"148","author":"Yuan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13020","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaem.5c01260","article-title":"An Overview of Recent Advances in Antidehydration and Antifreezing Hydrogels","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mser.2025.101098","article-title":"Enhancing water retention in hydrogels under extreme conditions: Strategies, applications and challenges","volume":"167","author":"Chang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3988","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17775-4","article-title":"In-air fast response and high speed jumping and rolling of a light-driven hydrogel actuator","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.porgcoat.2022.106784","article-title":"Ultra-stretchable dual-network ionic hydrogel strain sensor with moistening and anti-freezing ability","volume":"166","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Org. Coat."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9981","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c22398","article-title":"Stress Relaxation and Creep Response of Glassy Hydrogels with Dense Physical Associations","volume":"17","author":"Qiu","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402059","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202402059","article-title":"Cross-Linker Architectures Impact Viscoelasticity in Dynamic Covalent Hydrogels","volume":"13","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909954","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201909954","article-title":"Mussel-Inspired Hydrogels for Self-Adhesive Bioelectronics","volume":"30","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3110","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.8b01172","article-title":"Mussel-Inspired Cellulose Nanocomposite Tough Hydrogels with Synergistic Self-Healing, Adhesive, and Strain-Sensitive Properties","volume":"30","author":"Shao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1039\/D5CS00403A","article-title":"Dynamic regulation of interfacial adhesion in biomedical hydrogels","volume":"55","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4048","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.0c01677","article-title":"Engineering Hydrogel Adhesion for Biomedical Applications via Chemical Design of the Junction","volume":"7","author":"Bovone","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.152290","article-title":"Sweat-adaptive adhesive hydrogel electronics enabled by dynamic hydrogen bond networks","volume":"492","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1039\/C9CS00285E","article-title":"Catechol-functionalized hydrogels: Biomimetic design, adhesion mechanism, and biomedical applications","volume":"49","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1039\/D5BM01789K","article-title":"Hydrogel-based wearable and implantable biosensors in health monitoring","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4970","DOI":"10.1039\/D5MH00528K","article-title":"Intelligent soft wearable bioelectronics for neurological disorders","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5642\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T17:29:31Z","timestamp":1788542971000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5642"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26175642"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26175642","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]}}}