{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T11:10:20Z","timestamp":1789125020637,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]],"date-time":"2026-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788566400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UK\u2019s Centre for Connected and Autonomous Vehicles"},{"name":"National Measurement System"},{"name":"Department for Science and Technology"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006041","name":"Innovate UK","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05ar5fy68","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Measurements are presented from a purpose-built outdoor test facility for the assurance of situational awareness sensors for Autonomous Vehicles (AVs). The testbed included meteorological instrumentation for an accurate high-resolution picture of weather traversing the site. Static targets at ranges up to 250 m were observed simultaneously with multiple radar, LiDAR and camera systems exposed to the natural weather events over a two-year period. The aim of the testbed was to collect data over a prolonged period of time to ensure the maximum amount of variation in weather was encountered. Uniquely, the testbed treats the measurement of weather as an equal metrology challenge to that of measuring the CAV sensor response with the aim of understanding the extent to which it is possible to quantitatively correlate sensor performance degradation with weather parameters. In this paper case study examples of the testbed data for rainfall, fog and \u2018ideal\u2019 neutral conditions have been analysed. Correlations between sensor performance degradation and weather parameters were observed in several cases, including comparisons with rain rate and MOR (visibility). However, large uncertainties and complex interactions between weather-related performance reduction and secondary weather effects, like sensor window and target surface wetting, make an explicit determination of the severity at which a weather condition causes a sensor to become untrustworthy, problematic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175649","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T12:12:25Z","timestamp":1788783145000},"page":"5649","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of UK Weather on Autonomous Vehicle Radar, LiDAR and Camera Vision Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Jessica","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Dudley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6318-2321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Cheadle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2190-934X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imran","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fengping","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Bownds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hsun","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joel","family":"Rapley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andre","family":"Burgess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0671-822X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mira","family":"Naftaly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mayokun","family":"Aikomo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex TW11 0LW, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Price","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nawal","family":"Husnoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3259-091X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephan","family":"Havemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2545-0695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew","family":"Fry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Osborne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9975-8258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"McGregor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan","family":"Vance","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Met Office, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Goldman Sachs (2024). 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