{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T05:07:00Z","timestamp":1788930420682,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]],"date-time":"2026-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788566400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62101455"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62101455"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62101455"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62101455"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High-precision manufacturing in unstructured factories imposes stringent requirements on real-time scene perception and end-effector positioning accuracy. Traditional single-sensor solutions suffer from perception blind spots in human-robot mixed environments with complex lighting, while chassis cumulative error often leads to rigid collisions during end-effector operations. To address this, this paper proposes and evaluates a decision-level multi-sensor coordination mechanism for robust navigation and high-precision planar positioning of industrial mobile robots. The mechanism assigns explicit sensor roles, distance-dependent trigger conditions, and deterministic safety priorities. At the navigation and obstacle avoidance level, a sequential decision policy is constructed: macroscopically, a lightweight You Only Look Once version 5 small (YOLOv5s) is utilized for the early detection of dynamic objects, providing bounding-box coordinates to trigger preemptive deceleration, while LiDAR independently provides geometric ranging for ROS local-costmap updating and detour replanning; microscopically, a low-level hardware interrupt strategy triggered by ultrasonic sensors is proposed to mitigate near-field blind spots and reduce communication latency. At the end-effector positioning level, under illumination conditions ranging from 200 to 1000 lux, an adaptive alignment algorithm combining hue-saturation-value color-space morphological processing and Kalman filtering is proposed to suppress measurement noise caused by illumination variations and mechanical vibrations. Experiments in the tested dynamic human-robot mixed scenarios showed no rigid collisions for the proposed system and an emergency response time of approximately 50 ms against sudden blind-spot intrusions. Simultaneously, the system achieves a 95% reliability rate in controlling the end-effector 2D planar positioning error (X-Y plane) within a \u00b12 mm tolerance under complex illumination interference. These results demonstrate improved navigation safety and planar-positioning reliability under the tested flexible-manufacturing conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26175655","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T12:12:25Z","timestamp":1788783145000},"page":"5655","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Decision-Level Multi-Sensor Coordination for Robust Navigation and High-Precision Planar Positioning of Industrial Mobile Robots"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0908-6162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teng-Xiao","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming-Wei","family":"You","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Internet of Things Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zi-Yi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4331-5490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng-Yuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2702-9500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xue-Yu","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejor.2021.01.019","article-title":"Planning and control of autonomous mobile robots for intralogistics: Literature review and research agenda","volume":"294","author":"Fragapane","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oper. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzedzickis, A., Suba\u010di\u016bt\u0117-\u017demaitien\u0117, J., \u0160utinys, E., Samukait\u0117-Bubnien\u0117, U., and Bu\u010dinskas, V. (2021). Advanced applications of industrial robotics: New trends and possibilities. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12010135"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5671","DOI":"10.1080\/00207543.2025.2461131","article-title":"Flexible material handling system for multi-load autonomous mobile robots in manufacturing environments: A hierarchical reinforcement learning approach","volume":"63","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., and Chidambareswaran, T. (2023). Autonomous mobile robots in manufacturing operations. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 19th International Conference on Automation Science and Engineering (CASE), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CASE56687.2023.10260631"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2099","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2022.3194082","article-title":"Dynamic optimization of conflict-free routing of automated guided vehicles for just-in-time delivery","volume":"20","author":"Nishida","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urrea, C., and Kern, J. (2025). Recent Advances and Challenges in Industrial Robotics: A Systematic Review of Technological Trends and Emerging Applications. Processes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr13030832"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Rajala, E. (2026, September 02). Autonomous Mobile Robots in Small Batch Size Production. Available online: https:\/\/trepo.tuni.fi\/handle\/10024\/135060."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"38595","article-title":"A Review of Sensing and Localization for Autonomous Mobile Robots in Warehouse Environments","volume":"11","author":"Sarker","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"2480","article-title":"Visual SLAM for Mobile Robots in Dynamic and Complex Environments: A Review","volume":"24","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabm6074","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abm6074","article-title":"Robot operating system 2: Design, architecture, and uses in the wild","volume":"7","author":"Macenski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez, J.L., Morales, J., S\u00e1nchez, M., Mor\u00e1n, M., Reina, A.J., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Lozano, J.J. (2020). Reactive navigation on natural environments by continuous classification of ground traversability. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226423"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2022.3141876","article-title":"Fast-lio2: Fast direct lidar-inertial odometry","volume":"38","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2026.112142","article-title":"Robust multimodal fusion for terrain perception and autonomous robot navigation in unstructured agricultural environments","volume":"252","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2025.110952","article-title":"Intelligent cooperative scheduling and path planning for tracked maize harvesters and grain trucks using an enhanced hybrid MOEA\/D-LSA algorithm","volume":"239","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, C., Liu, Z., Liu, X.J., Xie, F., Yang, Y., Wei, Q., and Fei, Q. (2018). DS-SLAM: A semantic visual SLAM towards dynamic environments. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2018.8593691"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2023.104493","article-title":"From the desks of ROS maintainers: A survey of modern & capable mobile robotics algorithms in the robot operating system 2","volume":"168","author":"Macenski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ju, L., Zhao, H., Ji, X., and Wei, D. (2024). IBLI-SLAM: Intensity-Based LiDAR-Inertial SLAM for Dynamic Environments. Proceedings of the 2024 14th International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN62893.2024.10786137"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4076","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2018.2860039","article-title":"DynaSLAM: Tracking, mapping, and inpainting in dynamic scenes","volume":"3","author":"Bescos","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Q., Xu, Z., Li, Y., Zhang, Y., and Ye, F. (2025). DKB-SLAM: Dynamic RGB-D Visual SLAM with Efficient Keyframe Selection and Local Bundle Adjustment. Robotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics14100134"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11979","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2024.3378182","article-title":"Multi-modal data and model reduction for enabling edge fusion in connected vehicle environments","volume":"73","author":"Thornton","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y. (2025). Path planning algorithm for logistics autonomous vehicles at Cainiao stations based on multi-sensor data fusion. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0321257"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44883","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2025.3627895","article-title":"Real-Time 3-D Object Detection for Traffic Monitoring Using Efficient LiDAR\u2013Camera Fusion on Edge Devices","volume":"25","author":"Nguyen","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Cao, H., Li, D., Huang, K., Qian, C., Shangguan, L., and Yang, Z. (2020). Edge assisted mobile semantic visual SLAM. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2020-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM41043.2020.9155438"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2022.3152247","article-title":"A survey on vision transformer","volume":"45","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2020.2976475","article-title":"Model compression and hardware acceleration for neural networks: A comprehensive survey","volume":"108","author":"Deng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10681","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2024.3448254","article-title":"Correlation-embedded transformer tracking: A single-branch framework","volume":"46","author":"Xie","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Li, J., and Zhang, H. (2024). LVI-Fusion: A Robust Lidar-Visual-Inertial SLAM Scheme. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16091524"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bostelman, R., Bostelman, R., Li-Baboud, Y.S., Yoon, S., Shah, M., and Aboul-Enein, O. (2020). Towards Measurement of Advanced Mobile Manipulator Performance for Assembly Applications.","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.TN.2108"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2025.3605943","article-title":"What Matters in Constructing a Visual Servoing Scheme: A Review of Key Issues and Solutions","volume":"31","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179981","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3503674","article-title":"Robot Visual Tracking Model Based on Improved GOTURN-LD Algorithm","volume":"12","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Li, D., Zhang, C., Wan, J., and Xie, M. (2020). RGB-D image processing algorithm for target recognition and pose estimation of visual servo system. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020430"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cagd.2008.07.008","article-title":"Geometry and kinematics of the Mecanum wheel","volume":"25","author":"Gfrerrer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Aided Geom. Des."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yusifli, E., Yahiaoui, R., Qaisar, S.M., Addouche, M., Al-Mahdawi, B., Bourouina, H., Herlem, G., and Gharbi, T. (2017). FPGA-based HD Camera system for the micropositioning of biomedical micro-objects using a contactless micro-conveyor. Micromachines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi8030074"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2023.3238524","article-title":"Object detection in 20 years: A survey","volume":"111","author":"Zou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Li, J., Fu, W., Ma, J., and Wang, G. (2023). A lightweight YOLOv7 insulator defect detection algorithm based on DSC-SE. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0289162"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5655\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T04:10:48Z","timestamp":1788927048000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/17\/5655"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26175655"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26175655","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]]}}}