{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T09:07:33Z","timestamp":1788858453256,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52505076"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52505076"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52505431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52505431"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52505076"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52505076"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52505431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52505431"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sound source localization based on microphone arrays has attracted extensive research interest in the fields of speech communication, detection and tracking. However, conventional near-field beamforming typically assumes free-field propagation and ignores coherent ground reflections, which bias phase estimates at floor-mounted arrays and degrade localization accuracy. To address this, the total Green\u2019s function is reformulated by embedding the image-source reflected path directly into the beamforming propagation model. Unlike conventional approaches that assume free-field propagation, this formulation enables phase compensation to jointly account for the direct and ground-reflected wavefronts. The in-phase superposition of signals is then realized through frequency-domain phase compensation, and the sound source position is estimated via the maximum likelihood criterion. Subsequently, a dual-mode operation mechanism of automatic broadband scanning and manual single-frequency analysis is implemented, with frequency-weighted wideband spatial spectrum processing for noise and aliasing suppression. Finally, a real-time sound source localization system based on a 4 \u00d7 4 MEMS array is designed. Experimental results show that sound source localization in a broad frequency band can be achieved at standoff distances of 0.1 m\u20130.3 m from the array plane, with a localization accuracy of less than 0.015 m. The proposed method demonstrates strong robustness against ground-reflection interference and has potential applications in acoustic monitoring, industrial fault diagnosis and other related areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26185685","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T08:10:22Z","timestamp":1788855022000},"page":"5685","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Real-Time Sound Source Localization Based on the Ground-Reflection Compensation Algorithm"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3235-9371","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengkai","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Missile Engineering, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhen","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Missile Engineering, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhiwen","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Missile Engineering, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhengyang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Missile Engineering, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhenxin","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Missile Engineering, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Hongjie","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Missile Engineering, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi\u2019an 710025, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snr.2025.100313","article-title":"A review on recent advances in sound source localization techniques, challenges, and applications","volume":"9","author":"Khan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sens. 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