{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T05:06:41Z","timestamp":1789103201350,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788912000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["UID\/50014\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/50014\/2025"]}]},{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","award":["2020.00044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.00044"]}]},{"award":["UID\/50014\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/50014\/2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00snfqn58","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2020.00044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020.00044"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00snfqn58","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work presents an experimental investigation of droplet evaporation dynamics using a step-index multimode fiber-tip (MMF) interferometer. Distilled water, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol (IPA), and their binary mixtures with water were analyzed through complementary frequency- and time-domain approaches. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis was used to identify the dominant spectral components over selected evaporation intervals, while the instantaneous phase obtained from the analytic signal was used to track time-dependent variations in the optical response. For water, dominant components at 8.34 and 9.87 Hz corresponded to thickness-variation rates of \u22124.85 and \u22125.75 \u00b5m\/s, respectively. Ethanol exhibited a dominant component at 15.8 Hz, corresponding to \u22129.01 \u00b5m\/s, whereas IPA showed components at 13.2 and 34.8 Hz, associated with rates of \u22127.46 and \u221219.6 \u00b5m\/s. Binary mixtures exhibited multiple spectral components and stronger temporal variability, indicating a nonstationary optical response during evaporation. The frequency- and time-domain results therefore provide complementary descriptions: the FFT identifies the dominant components over the selected interval, whereas instantaneous-phase analysis reveals their temporal evolution. Because the analysis was performed over short, selected evaporation intervals, the refractive index was assumed to remain approximately constant, and the measured phase variations were therefore attributed predominantly to changes in droplet thickness. The retrieved values are consequently interpreted as thickness-variation rates rather than direct mass-loss rates. The proposed approach provides a simple and compact method for monitoring droplet evaporation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26185742","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T16:43:16Z","timestamp":1788972196000},"page":"5742","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multimode Fiber-Tip Interferometry for Time- and Frequency-Domain Analysis of Droplet Evaporation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"M\u00e1rio","family":"Lousada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Vin\u00edcius","family":"Piaia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"FEUP\u2014Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0384-1924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Robalinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7555-361X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8295-3259","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susana","family":"Novais","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7680-1056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Orlando","family":"Fraz\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INESC TEC\u2014Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CS00902F","article-title":"Recent advances in droplet wetting and evaporation","volume":"47","author":"Brutin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. 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