{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T09:03:41Z","timestamp":1789549421655,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Energy and Water Agency, Malta","award":["CUP B13B25000030006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP B13B25000030006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Moisture monitoring in historic masonry requires non-destructive solutions that can be adapted to the characteristics and value of the asset, the spatial extent of the phenomenon, and the need for repeated measurements over time. This work presents an integrated reflectometric methodology that combines accurate Frequency-Domain Reflectometry (FDR) characterization with the development and validation of a custom-developed, compact, portable, low-cost, and potentially scalable Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR) prototype. Resonant patch antennas operating at different frequencies were used with a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) to characterize Lecce stone, Carparo, and plaster applied to Carparo during controlled drying. This configuration provides localized moisture information based on sensor\u2013material-specific calibration and is particularly suitable for valuable architectural, monumental, or decorative surfaces, where measurement accuracy and detailed spectral analysis are essential. The proposed TDR prototype extends the same reflectometric approach toward more accessible, low-cost, repeated, distributed, and potentially remotely managed monitoring. Its performance was assessed against a reference PicoVNA using a microstrip probe, selected as a representative application for monitoring broader masonry regions and phenomena such as rising damp. The reflectograms acquired with the prototype were processed to reconstruct the corresponding complex S11(f) responses, allowing the two measurement systems to be compared on a common frequency-domain basis. The results showed a consistent moisture-dependent resonance evolution and demonstrated that the prototype preserves the principal temporal and spectral information observed with the reference instrument. The proposed methodology therefore brings together complementary measurement capabilities within a unified framework, enabling the sensing configuration to be selected according to the required accuracy, spatial coverage, portability, cost, scalability, and monitoring frequency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26185856","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T07:58:59Z","timestamp":1789545539000},"page":"5856","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Integrated Time- and Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Non-Invasive Moisture Monitoring in Historic Masonry Materials"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Cannazza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Heritage Science (National Research Council), 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9031-7690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Cataldo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8462-5563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raissa","family":"Schiavoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Leucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Heritage Science (National Research Council), 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8715-2303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Masciullo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1876-7555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dora Francesca","family":"Barbolla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Heritage Science (National Research Council), 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8116-3703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lara","family":"De Giorgi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Heritage Science (National Research Council), 73100 Lecce, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahato, C., Pulatsu, B., Spadea, S., Louren\u00e7o, P.B., Cui, G., Bompa, D., Sagaseta, J., and Funari, M.F. (2026). Impact of Moisture-Related Phenomena on the Mechanical Performance and Deterioration of Historic Masonry: A Systematic Literature Review. Int. J. Archit. Herit.","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2026.2636749"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2023.100293","article-title":"Water-related deterioration risk assessment for sustainable conservation of heritage buildings in the Forbidden City, China","volume":"17","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2015.07.012","article-title":"Future Moisture Loads for Building Facades in Sweden: Climate Change and Wind-Driven Rain","volume":"93","author":"Nik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.130631","article-title":"An integrated approach to the monitoring of rising damp in historic brick masonry","volume":"370","author":"Franzoni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.141793","article-title":"Investigation of capillary rise in brick masonry models under controlled conditions","volume":"483","author":"Guolo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s41024-026-00788-9","article-title":"Diagnostic and characterization techniques for historic masonries with rising damp: A systematic literature review","volume":"11","author":"Silva","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Build. Pathol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Afif-Khouri, E., Lozano-Mart\u00ednez, A., L\u00f3pez de Rego, J.I., L\u00f3pez-Gallego, B., and Forj\u00e1n-Castro, R. (2025). Capillary Rise and Salt Weathering in Spain: Impacts on the Degradation of Calcareous Materials in Historic Monuments. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15132285"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280894","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/1280894","article-title":"Salt Damage and Rising Damp Treatment in Building Structures","volume":"2016","author":"Delgado","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.3390\/heritage4010022","article-title":"Understanding Deterioration due to Salt and Ice Crystallization in Scandinavian Massive Brick Masonry","volume":"4","author":"Balksten","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heritage"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2024.2341048","article-title":"Migration of Water and Salt in Confined Archaeological Complexes: Comprehensive Investigation Below the Third Courtyard of the Prague Castle","volume":"19","author":"Weiss","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Herit."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall, C., and Hoff, W.D. (2011). Water Transport in Brick, Stone and Concrete, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b12840"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.3390\/heritage3040081","article-title":"Influence of Environment on Microbial Colonization of Historic Stone Buildings with Emphasis on Cyanobacteria","volume":"3","author":"Gaylarde","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heritage"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1080\/00393630.2020.1727695","article-title":"Material Weathering and Structural Damage in Historic Adobe Constructions in Spain: Preliminary Results of a Quantitative Approach","volume":"65","author":"Mileto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stud. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2013.826304","article-title":"Detachment Analysis of Dehumidified Repair Mortars Applied to Historical Masonry Walls","volume":"8","author":"Bocca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Archit. Herit."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez-Desmond, D., Arizzi, A., and Cardell, C. (2023). A Case Study of Renaissance Wall Paintings in Granada (Spain): Historical\u2013Artistic Analysis, Materials Characterization, and State of Conservation. Minerals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/min13070854"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Torraca, G. (2009). Lectures on Materials Science for Architectural Conservation, ICCROM."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2025.112313","article-title":"Monitoring of a Historic Building\u2019s Masonry Moisture Content","volume":"104","author":"Karoglou","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2018.03.023","article-title":"When and How Reducing Moisture Content for the Conservation of Historic Building: A Problem-Solving View or Monitoring Approach?","volume":"31","author":"Rosina","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wojciechowska, G., Bednarz, \u0141.J., Doli\u0144ska, N., Opa\u0142ka, P., Krupa, M., and Imnadze, N. (2024). Intelligent Monitoring System for Integrated Management of Historical Buildings. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14072108"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosina, E., and Esmaeilian Toussi, H. (2025). Microclimate Monitoring Using Multivariate Analysis to Identify Surface Moisture in Historic Masonry in Northern Italy. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15158542"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-6031(94)80090-1","article-title":"Studies on Historical Gravimetric Hygrometers","volume":"235","author":"Robens","year":"1994","journal-title":"Thermochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1179\/sic.2008.53.Supplement-2.33","article-title":"Techniques for Monitoring Moisture in Walls","volume":"53","author":"Pinchin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Stud. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2003.07.002","article-title":"Applications of infrared thermography for the investigation of historic structures","volume":"5","author":"Avdelidis","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.still.2004.10.004","article-title":"Electrical resistivity survey in soil science: A review","volume":"83","author":"Cousin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soil Tillage Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1038\/281056a0","article-title":"Unsaturated water flow within porous materials observed by NMR imaging","volume":"281","author":"Gummerson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-9851(99)00052-X","article-title":"Road evaluation with ground penetrating radar","volume":"43","author":"Saarenketo","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.earth.29.1.229","article-title":"Ground penetrating radar for environmental applications","volume":"29","author":"Knight","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"065803","article-title":"RF and microwave dielectric measurements upon materials for moisture sensing applications","volume":"21","author":"Gregory","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cataldo, A., Farhat, I., Farrugia, L., Persico, R., and Schiavoni, R. (2022). A Method for Extracting Debye Parameters as a Tool for Monitoring Watered and Contaminated Soils. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207805"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suchorab, Z., Tabi\u015b, K., Brzyski, P., Szczepaniak, Z., Rogala, T., Susek, W., and \u0141ag\u00f3d, G. (2022). Comparison of the moist material relative permittivity readouts using the non-invasive reflectometric sensors and microwave antenna. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22103622"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.106999","article-title":"Monitoring rising damp in solid masonry walls: An experimental comparison of five different methods","volume":"75","author":"Panico","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.114860","article-title":"The use of the multi-sequential LSTM in electrical tomography for masonry wall moisture detection","volume":"234","author":"Kulisz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2025.137691","article-title":"Fiber Bragg grating sensor for accurate and in situ monitoring of moisture content of sandstone","volume":"436","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Feasibility of Using Electromagnetic Waves in Determining the Moisture Content of Building Fabrics and the Cause of the Water Ingress","volume":"7","author":"Kot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Smart Sens. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pittella, E., Cannazza, G., Cataldo, A., Cavagnaro, M., D\u2019Alvia, L., Masciullo, A., Schiavoni, R., and Piuzzi, E. (2025). Non-Destructive Permittivity and Moisture Analysis in Wooden Heritage Conservation Using Split Ring Resonators and Coaxial Probe. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25164947"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2003.4440","article-title":"A review of advances in dielectric and electrical conductivity measurement in soils using TDR","volume":"2","author":"Robinson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vadose Zone J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1029\/WR016i003p00574","article-title":"Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurements in coaxial transmission lines","volume":"16","author":"Topp","year":"1980","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pittella, E., Schiavoni, R., Monti, G., Masciullo, A., Scarpetta, M., Cataldo, A., and Piuzzi, E. (2022). Split Ring Resonator Network and Diffused Sensing Element Embedded in a Concrete Beam for Structural Health Monitoring. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22176398"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.05.069","article-title":"Microwave reflectometric methodologies for water content estimation in stone-made cultural heritage materials","volume":"118","author":"Piuzzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.110438","article-title":"A portable low-cost reflectometric setup for moisture measurement in cultural heritage masonry unit","volume":"189","author":"Pittella","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2024.03.003","article-title":"Non-destructive microwave techniques for the quantification and elimination of moisture in cultural heritage monuments","volume":"67","author":"Rizou","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1126\/science.224.4652.989","article-title":"Time-domain reflectometry: Simultaneous measurement of soil water content and electrical conductivity","volume":"224","author":"Dalton","year":"1984","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1993.03615995005700060003x","article-title":"Design of triple-wire time domain reflectometry probes in practice and theory","volume":"57","author":"Heimovaara","year":"1993","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.12913\/22998624\/172010","article-title":"Improving the Calibration of Surface Time Domain Reflectometry Sensors for Moisture Evaluation of Building Materials Using the Analysis of Covariance Method","volume":"17","author":"Futa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.115166","article-title":"Evaluation of electrical resistivity of cement-based materials using time domain reflectometry","volume":"236","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suchorab, Z., Widomski, M.K., Lagod, G., Barnat-Hunek, D., and Majerek, D. (2018). A Noninvasive TDR Sensor to Measure the Moisture Content of Rigid Porous Materials. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113935"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.108091","article-title":"Time domain reflectometry flat sensor for non-invasive monitoring of moisture changes in building materials","volume":"165","author":"Suchorab","year":"2020","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.21014\/acta_imeko.v10i3.1143","article-title":"Microwave reflectometric systems and monitoring apparatus for diffused-sensing applications","volume":"10","author":"Cataldo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta IMEKO"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/18\/3\/018","article-title":"A frequency-domain method for extending TDR performance in quality determination of fluids","volume":"18","author":"Cataldo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3534","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2018009","article-title":"A Combined TD\u2013FD Method for Enhanced Reflectometry Measurements in Liquid Quality Monitoring","volume":"58","author":"Cataldo","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19730228","article-title":"Forming the fast Fourier transform of a step response in time-domain metrology","volume":"9","author":"Nicolson","year":"1973","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfranklin.2016.10.046","article-title":"Ultra-broadband material spectroscopy from scattering parameters obtained from time-domain measurements","volume":"354","author":"Jha","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Frankl. Inst."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karoglou, M., Mouzakis, C., Bakolas, A., Asimakopoulos, S., and Mustapha, G. (2024). Monitoring and Calibrating Building Materials Drying Kinetics with Capacitance Sensors. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14020578"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.12913\/22998624\/187007","article-title":"Applying the Machine Learning Method to Improve Calibration Quality of Time Domain Reflectometry Measuring Technique","volume":"18","author":"Suchorab","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.12913\/22998624\/192595","article-title":"The Comparison of One-Variable and Two-Variable Polynomial Regression Models to Measure the Cellular Concrete Moisture Using the Time Domain Reflectometry Method","volume":"18","author":"Futa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/18\/5856\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T08:09:28Z","timestamp":1789546168000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/18\/5856"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26185856"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26185856","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]}}}