{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T05:02:47Z","timestamp":1790139767823,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&D Program of China","award":["2024YFF0617002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFF0617002"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51905514"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51905514"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["51905514"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51905514"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Portable blood glucose meters are commonly evaluated using test strips and control solutions, which assess the combined meter\u2013strip\u2013reagent response but are not designed to provide a directly controlled, pre-characterized electrical stimulus for repeated meter-side verification. This study developed a portable electrical response verification system based on dynamic microcurrent reproduction using a calibrated programmable current source. At each of two control solution levels, five 1000-point test strip current responses were acquired. Each response was reduced to 100 points by averaging every 10 consecutive samples, and the five reduced responses were then averaged point by point to obtain one level-specific mean reference waveform. Each mean waveform was converted into a 100-point DAC code table for STM32-controlled reproduction. The current source provided a measured output range of 0.016\u20139.829 \u03bcA. Five repeated reproductions per level yielded mean Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.9993 and 0.9995 and peak current CV values of 2.52% and 1.59%, respectively. The corresponding GA-3 meter (Sinocare Inc., Changsha, Hunan, China) readings differed from the mean original readings by 1.70% and 1.18%, with CV values of 1.81% and 1.29%. These results support the feasibility of controlled electrical response verification and short-term repeatability assessment of strip-based blood glucose meters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26185895","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T09:04:17Z","timestamp":1790067857000},"page":"5895","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Portable Electrical Response Verification System for Blood Glucose Meters Based on Dynamic Microcurrent Reproduction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Wenshu","family":"Yue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Metrology Measurement and Instrument, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6214-8428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yifan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Metrology Measurement and Instrument, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2881-2927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinhui","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Metrology Measurement and Instrument, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109119","article-title":"IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, Regional and Country-Level Diabetes Prevalence Estimates for 2021 and Projections for 2045","volume":"183","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, D.-N., Geng, S., Jing, R., and Zhang, H. (2024). Recent Developments in Personal Glucose Meters as Point-of-Care Testing Devices (2020\u20132024). Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14090419"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70167","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.70167","article-title":"From Finger Pricks to Hybrid Closed-Loop Artificial Pancreas System: Progress and Future Trends in Continuous Glucose Monitoring Biosensors for Diabetes Care","volume":"38","author":"Rajgopal","year":"2026","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816641433","article-title":"Interferences and Limitations in Blood Glucose Self-Testing: An Overview of the Current Knowledge","volume":"10","author":"Erbach","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296815587602","article-title":"Control Solutions for Blood Glucose Meters: A Neglected Opportunity for Reliable Measurements?","volume":"9","author":"Heinemann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.126897","article-title":"Advancements in Electrochemical Glucose Sensors","volume":"281","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1080\/00207217.2011.643499","article-title":"A High-Precision Weak Current Source Using Operational Amplifiers","volume":"99","author":"Lei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dey, K., Santra, T.S., and Tseng, F.G. (2025). Advancements in Glucose Monitoring: From Traditional Methods to Wearable Sensors. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15052523"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, J., Yan, Z., and Liu, Q. (2022). Smartphone-Based Electrochemical Systems for Glucose Monitoring in Biofluids: A Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155670"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bard, A.J., and Faulkner, L.R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, Wiley. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.130552","article-title":"Stainless Steel 304 Needle Electrode for Precise Glucose Biosensor with High Signal-to-Noise Ratio","volume":"346","author":"Le","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-018-1361-7","article-title":"Portable Glucose Meter: Trends in Techniques and Its Potential Application in Analysis","volume":"411","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Y. (2021). Applications of Electrochemical Biosensors for Glucose Detection. Proceedings of the 2021 3rd International Academic Exchange Conference on Science and Technology Innovation (IAECST), Guangzhou, China, 10\u201312 December 2021, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IAECST54258.2021.9695939"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Sinocare Inc. (2023). GA-3 Blood Glucose Meter Instructions for Use, Sinocare Inc.. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Sinocare Inc. (2019). Blood Glucose Control Solution Instructions for Use, Sinocare Inc.. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sinocare Inc. (2023). Blood Glucose Test Strip Instructions for Use, Sinocare Inc.. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"STMicroelectronics (2026, August 29). STM32F103xC, STM32F103xD, STM32F103xE High-Density Performance Line Arm-Based 32-Bit MCU Datasheet, DS5792 Rev. 13, July 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/resource\/en\/datasheet\/stm32f103rc.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"29","article-title":"Design of Numerically Controlled \u03bcA-Level Constant Current Power","volume":"4","author":"Hu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dianzi Jishu"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Texas Instruments (2026, August 29). INA118 Precision, Low-Power Instrumentation Amplifier Datasheet, Rev. C, September 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/lit\/ds\/symlink\/ina118.pdf."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Texas Instruments (2026, August 29). OPA602 High-Speed Precision Difet Operational Amplifier Datasheet, Rev. A, September 2002. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/lit\/ds\/symlink\/opa602.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayers, J.E. (2023). A Practical Introduction to Electrical Circuits, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003408529"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Texas Instruments (2026, August 29). LM27762 Low-Noise Positive and Negative Output Integrated Charge Pump Plus LDO Datasheet, Rev. C, October 2025. Available online: https:\/\/www.ti.com\/lit\/ds\/symlink\/lm27762.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Kester, W., Bryant, J., and Byrne, M. (2026, August 29). Grounding Data Converters and Solving the Mystery of \u201cAGND\u201d and \u201cDGND\u201d; Tutorial MT-031; Analog Devices, 2009. Available online: https:\/\/www.analog.com\/media\/en\/training-seminars\/tutorials\/MT-031.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nouri, H., Bouchaala, D., Ben Jmaa, H., and Kanoun, O. (2020, January 20\u201323). Implementation of a Dual Howland Current Source for Biological Tissue Characterization. Proceedings of the 2020 17th International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD), Monastir, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SSD49366.2020.9364102"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5481","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-15-5481-2022","article-title":"Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE) or Mean Absolute Error (MAE): When to Use Them or Not","volume":"15","author":"Hodson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saccenti, E. (2023). What Can Go Wrong When Observations Are Not Independently and Identically Distributed: A Cautionary Note on Calculating Correlations on Combined Data Sets from Different Experiments or Conditions. Front. Syst. Biol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fsysb.2023.1042156"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5274","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jproteome.4c00461","article-title":"Calculating and Reporting Coefficients of Variation for DIA-Based Proteomics","volume":"23","author":"Brenes","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, R., Khan, M., Huang, Y., and Wang, G. (2025). Rapid Diagnosis of Different Cardiovascular Disease Events from Early Released Cardiac Biomarkers, cTnI, BNP, and CRP, by Biosensor Technology. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2025.1600695"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-023-06157-4","article-title":"From a Glimpse into the Key Aspects of Calibration and Correlation to Their Practical Considerations in Chemical Analysis","volume":"191","author":"Stalikas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1093\/jalm\/jfaf048","article-title":"Point-of-Care Testing Glucometer in Rapid Assessment Settings: Comparison of 2 Network-Capable Devices in a Referral Hospital","volume":"10","author":"Moretti","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Appl. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kausaite-Minkstimiene, A., Krikstaponyte, A., Stasyuk, N., Gayda, G., and Ramanaviciene, A. (2025). An Amperometric Enzyme\u2013Nanozyme Biosensor for Glucose Detection. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15080545"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikitina, V., Solovyev, I., and Karyakin, A. (2023). Electrochemistry of Freely Diffusing Mediators in Polyelectrolyte Membranes Used for Blood Glucose Test Strips with a High Upper Limit of the Linear Range. Eng. Proc., 35.","DOI":"10.3390\/IECB2023-14603"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2013). In Vitro Diagnostic Test Systems\u2014Requirements for Blood-Glucose Monitoring Systems for Self-Testing in Managing Diabetes Mellitus (Standard No. ISO 15197:2013)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-023-01517-y","article-title":"Evaluation of System Accuracy, Precision, Hematocrit Influence, and User Performance of Two Blood Glucose Monitoring Systems Based on ISO 15197:2013\/EN ISO 15197:2015","volume":"15","author":"Pleus","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/18\/5895\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T04:15:23Z","timestamp":1790136923000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/18\/5895"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s26185895"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26185895","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]}}}