{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T11:06:03Z","timestamp":1790075163767,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789776000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"French government","award":["ANR-11-IDEX-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-11-IDEX-0003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visual\u2013Inertial Odometry (VIO) has become a key technology for motion estimation in robotics and autonomous systems. However, deploying accurate VIO pipelines on embedded platforms remains challenging due to the trade-off between estimation accuracy, real-time performance, and energy consumption. This paper presents a hardware-aware Feature-PLPD VIO framework that integrates a point-and-line visual front-end with a loosely coupled Error-State Extended Kalman Filter (ESEKF) back-end. The proposed approach follows Algorithm Architecture Adequacy (A3) principles to preserve estimation robustness while limiting computational and memory requirements. To investigate its scalability across the considered resource constraints, two end-to-end embedded implementations are developed: a performance-oriented stereo VIO system on a GPU-based platform using GPU-aware software design, and a frugality-oriented low-cost RGB-D-assisted monocular VIO system on an FPGA-based architecture using hardware\u2013software co-design with depth scale correction. The stereo GPU-based implementation is evaluated offline in both outdoor and indoor environments and is additionally validated through real-time on-the-fly deployment on a Scout Mini robot, whereas the FPGA-based implementation is evaluated offline using the indoor VICON dataset. Experimental results demonstrate meter-level trajectory accuracy and real-time performance under strict resource constraints. Averaged over four KITTI sequences, the proposed ESEKF-based fusion reduces the translation and rotation ATE by approximately 25% and 18%, respectively, compared with the corresponding VO-only configuration, while a 10% reduction in translation ATE is achieved in the indoor VICON environment, resulting in a normalized ATE of 5.09% over the 23.77 m trajectory. Both embedded implementations sustain around 20 fps, and the architectural evaluation highlights complementary accuracy\u2013runtime\u2013energy trade-offs between the GPU- and FPGA-based solutions. These results demonstrate the feasibility of scaling the proposed embedded VIO framework toward resource- and energy-constrained robotic applications under the investigated experimental and hardware configurations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26185940","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T10:21:48Z","timestamp":1790072508000},"page":"5940","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Feature-PLPD-Aided Visual\u2013Inertial Odometry for Low-Cost Embedded Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8307-0770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayoub","family":"Mamri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LISV, UVSQ, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, 78124 V\u00e9lizy-Villacoublay, France"},{"name":"LIP6, CNRS, Sorbonne Universite, 75005 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5117-4006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelhafid","family":"El Hadri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LISV, UVSQ, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, 78124 V\u00e9lizy-Villacoublay, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2316-7981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelaziz","family":"Benallegue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LISV, UVSQ, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, 78124 V\u00e9lizy-Villacoublay, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5588-4291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khalil","family":"Hachicha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LIP6, CNRS, Sorbonne Universite, 75005 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nist\u00e9r, D., Naroditsky, O., and Bergen, J. 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