{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T05:07:19Z","timestamp":1790140039040,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education","award":["MOE-T2EP20123-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOE-T2EP20123-0001"]}]},{"award":["MOE-T2EP20123-0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOE-T2EP20123-0001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01kcva023","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hemispheric strokes impair motor control in contralateral body parts, necessitating effective rehabilitation strategies. Motor imagery-based brain\u2013computer interfaces (MI-BCIs) promote neuroplasticity, aiding the recovery of motor functions. While deep learning has shown promise in decoding MI actions for stroke rehabilitation, existing studies largely focus on bilateral MI actions and are limited to offline evaluations. Decoding directional information from unilateral MI, however, offers a more natural control interface with greater degrees of freedom but remains challenging due to spatially overlapping neural activity. This work proposes a novel deep learning framework for online decoding of binary directional MI signals from the dominant hand of 20 healthy subjects. The proposed method employs EEGNet-based convolutional filters to extract temporal and spatial features. The EEGNet model is enhanced by squeeze-and-excitation (SE) layers that rank the electrode importance and feature maps. A subject-independent model is initially trained using calibration data from multiple subjects and fine-tuned for subject-specific adaptation. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated using subject-specific online session data. The proposed method achieved an average right vs. left binary direction-decoding accuracy of 58.7\u00b18% for unilateral MI tasks, outperforming the existing deep learning models. Additionally, the SE-layer ranking offers insights into electrode contribution, enabling potential subject-specific BCI optimization. The findings highlight the efficacy of the proposed method in advancing MI-BCI applications for a more natural and effective control of BCI systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26185951","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T10:21:48Z","timestamp":1790072508000},"page":"5951","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Subject-Specific Deep Learning Model for Motor Imagery Direction Decoding"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5110-2475","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Praveen K.","family":"Parashiva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Infocomm Technology, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore 828608, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3721-0928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sagila Gangadharan","family":"Kutteri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infocomm Technology, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore 828608, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"A. P.","family":"Vinod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infocomm Technology, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore 828608, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0041-1725137","article-title":"Brain-computer interfaces in neurorecovery and neurorehabilitation","volume":"41","author":"Young","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, B., Yuan, H., Meng, J., and Gao, S. (2020). Brain\u2013Computer Interfaces. Neural Engineering, Springer International Publishing. 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