{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:01:42Z","timestamp":1790672502172,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Shanxi Province Special Program for Guiding the Transformation of Scientific and Technological Achievements","award":["202304021301028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202304021301028"]}]},{"name":"Central Government Funds for Guiding Local Science and Technology Development","award":["YDZJSX2024D032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YDZJSX2024D032"]}]},{"award":["YDZJSX2024D032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YDZJSX2024D032"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/036h6g940","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Central Government Funds for Guiding Local Science and Technology Development","award":["YDZJSX2025D034"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YDZJSX2025D034"]}]},{"award":["YDZJSX2025D034"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YDZJSX2025D034"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/036h6g940","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To address the insufficient heading constraint of integrated navigation systems under GNSS-denied conditions and the high computational burden of high-resolution polarization-image processing, an IMU\/GNSS\/sky-polarization integrated navigation system based on a Zynq UltraScale+ MPSoC is designed and implemented. A PS\u2013PL collaborative architecture is adopted, in which pixel-level polarization-image processing is accelerated in the programmable logic (PL). In contrast, frame-level polarization feature extraction, polarization-based heading estimation, and ESKF-based multi-source fusion are performed in the processing system (PS). The experimental results show that the average difference in AoP calculation between the IP core and the PC-based implementation is approximately 0.3\u2218. In four repeated experiments conducted under clear-sky conditions, the position-deviation MAE remains below 0.34 m, while the heading deviation is generally around 2\u2218. Three additional repeated experiments under cloudy conditions show that the position and heading deviations increase in some cases as the quality of the polarization observations decreases; nevertheless, the system maintains continuous and stable navigation solutions. Under a complete 120 s GNSS outage, the introduction of polarization-based heading observations reduces the heading MAE and RMSE by approximately 18% and 26%, respectively, demonstrating that polarization observations can effectively constrain inertial heading drift during prolonged GNSS outages.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26196077","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T09:23:01Z","timestamp":1790328181000},"page":"6077","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design and Implementation of an MPSoC-Based IMU\/GNSS\/Polarization Integrated Navigation System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Jie","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Pengwei","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5377-4646","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boguspayev, N., Akhmedov, D., Raskaliyev, A., Kim, A., and Sukhenko, A. (2023). A Comprehensive Review of GNSS\/INS Integration Techniques for Land and Air Vehicle Applications. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13084819"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(99)00064-0","article-title":"A Mobile Robot Employing Insect Strategies for Navigation","volume":"30","author":"Lambrinos","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14232","DOI":"10.3390\/s121114232","article-title":"Bio-Inspired Polarized Skylight-Based Navigation Sensors: A Review","volume":"12","author":"Karman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2023.05.024","article-title":"Review on Bio-Inspired Polarized Skylight Navigation","volume":"36","author":"Kong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180878","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2018.0878","article-title":"Polarized Skylight-Based Heading Measurements: A Bio-Inspired Approach","volume":"16","author":"Dupeyroux","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5646","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2725938","article-title":"Polarized Light Compass-Aided Visual-Inertial Navigation under Foliage Environment","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.108694","article-title":"Seamless Integration of Polarization Compass and Inertial Navigation Data with a Self-Learning Multi-Rate Residual Correction Algorithm","volume":"170","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2021.108146","article-title":"Multi-Rate Strong Tracking Square-Root Cubature Kalman Filter for MEMS-INS\/GPS\/Polarization Compass Integrated Navigation System","volume":"163","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.24.002347","article-title":"Polarization Patterns of Thick Clouds: Overcast Skies Have Distribution of the Angle of Polarization Similar to That of Clear Skies","volume":"24","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28589","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.028589","article-title":"Polarization Patterns under Different Sky Conditions and a Navigation Method Based on the Symmetry of the AOP Map of Skylight","volume":"26","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2022.111847","article-title":"An Adaptive Anti-Disturbance Navigation Method for Polarized Skylight-Based Autonomous Integrated Navigation System","volume":"202","author":"Dou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5453","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.45.005453","article-title":"Review of Passive Imaging Polarimetry for Remote Sensing Applications","volume":"45","author":"Tyo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19087","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.019087","article-title":"CCD Polarization Imaging Sensor with Aluminum Nanowire Optical Filters","volume":"18","author":"Gruev","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21040","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.021040","article-title":"Calibration Methods for Division-of-Focal-Plane Polarimeters","volume":"21","author":"Powell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3199","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.003199","article-title":"Real-Time Polarization Imaging Algorithm for Camera-Based Polarization Navigation Sensors","volume":"56","author":"Lu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1109\/TCAD.2011.2110592","article-title":"High-Level Synthesis for FPGAs: From Prototyping to Deployment","volume":"30","author":"Cong","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Design Integr. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1109\/TCAD.2015.2513673","article-title":"A Survey and Evaluation of FPGA High-Level Synthesis Tools","volume":"35","author":"Nane","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Design Integr. Circuits Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majoral, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Prades, C., and Arribas, J. (2023). A Flexible System-on-Chip Field-Programmable Gate Array Architecture for Prototyping Experimental Global Navigation Satellite System Receivers. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23239483"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7084","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.462059","article-title":"Noise Analysis in Stokes Parameter Reconstruction for Division-of-Focal-Plane Polarimeters","volume":"61","author":"Bai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2003.12.003","article-title":"Solar Position Algorithm for Solar Radiation Applications","volume":"76","author":"Reda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4472","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3139353","article-title":"A Novel Polarized Skylight Navigation Model for Bionic Navigation with Marginalized Unscented Kalman Filter","volume":"22","author":"Dou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.510283","article-title":"Image-Registration-Based Solar Meridian Detection for Accurate and Robust Polarization Navigation","volume":"32","author":"Pan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isatra.2023.07.006","article-title":"Optimal Vector Matching Fusion Method for Bionic Compound Eye Polarization Compass and Inertial Sensor Integration","volume":"141","author":"Dou","year":"2023","journal-title":"ISA Trans."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"York, T., Powell, S., and Gruev, V. (2011). A Comparison of Polarization Image Processing across Different Platforms. Polarization Science and Remote Sensing V, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.894633"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1002\/cta.2477","article-title":"An FPGA-Based Pipeline for Micropolarizer Array Imaging","volume":"46","author":"Lapray","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Circuit Theory Appl."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2024.131056","article-title":"Environmental Adaptive Enhancement for the Bionic Polarized Compass Based on Multi-Scattering Light Model","volume":"574","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6077\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T08:16:29Z","timestamp":1790669789000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6077"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s26196077"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26196077","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]}}}