{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T04:56:18Z","timestamp":1790744178263,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SECOM Science and Technology Foundation","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013nrf512","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013nrf512","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one of the leading low-power wide-area network specifications owing to its capabilities for long-range communication and energy savings. For large-scale sensing applications by a large number of LoRa nodes, it is important to improve communication performance and energy saving. However, redundant sensing and transmissions consume node energy, while simultaneous transmissions, particularly from hidden nodes, cause packet collisions. Centralized optimization of these problems requires the collection of network-wide information and may impose substantial communication overhead due to its narrow communication bandwidth. In this paper, we propose a distributed method for jointly controlling sensing coverage, node energy consumption, and transmission timing using locally exchanged information. Our main idea is to learn from the swarm intelligence of organisms that perform efficient reproductive behavior. The proposed method extends a previously developed mathematical model that reproduced the chorus and satellite behavior observed in three Japanese tree frogs. Whereas the original model describes the satellite behavior of a frog relative to a nearby caller, the proposed method generalizes this interaction to multiple wireless nodes associated with the same sensing target. By embedding target-point and node-state information in transmitted packets, each node identifies the kth-ranked node associated with the target and autonomously determines whether to remain active or enter a low-power satellite state. This mechanism regulates the time- and target-averaged number of active sensing nodes toward k without collecting global node-distribution information. We further introduce an in-phase-flag mechanism that modifies node-specific phase interactions to suppress persistent packet collisions between hidden nodes located two hops apart. Simulation results show that the proposed method reduces transmission energy consumption by 65% for average 1-coverage and by 46% for average 2-coverage compared with the method without satellite-state control. In the collision evaluation, the two-hop packet collision rate was 9.36% without phase control and 4.49% with the basic phase-control mechanism. By additionally applying the in-phase-flag-based hidden-node collision-control mechanism, the two-hop collision rate was further reduced to 3.51%, while maintaining a low one-hop collision rate. These results demonstrate that the proposed extension of the frog-behavior model can jointly regulate sensing redundancy and suppress data collisions through distributed local interactions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26196153","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T15:57:57Z","timestamp":1790611077000},"page":"6153","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Energy-Efficient Self-Organized Coverage Control in LoRaWAN Inspired by Satellite Behavior of Japanese Tree Frogs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6780-0641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daichi","family":"Kominami","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Osaka, Osaka 565-0871, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Yushi","family":"Hosokawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Osaka, Osaka 565-0871, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Ikkyu","family":"Aihara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4168-2875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masayuki","family":"Murata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Osaka, Osaka 565-0871, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.03.004","article-title":"A survey on LPWA technology: LoRa and NB-IoT","volume":"3","author":"Sinha","year":"2017","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2026, June 22). LoRa Alliance. Available online: https:\/\/lora-alliance.org\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2026, June 22). LoRaWAN 1.0.4 Specification Package. Available online: https:\/\/resources.lora-alliance.org\/technical-specifications\/ts001-1-0-4-lorawan-l2-1-0-4-specification."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1109\/TGCN.2019.2908409","article-title":"Collision resolution protocol for delay and energy efficient LoRa networks","volume":"3","author":"Guitton","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Green Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7171","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2982745","article-title":"Analysis and Enhancement of the LoRaWAN Adaptive Data Rate Scheme","volume":"7","author":"Finnegan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S., and Yoo, Y. (2018). Contention-Aware Adaptive Data Rate for Throughput Optimization in LoRaWAN. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061716"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3750","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2020.2974722","article-title":"Joint Allocation Strategies of Power and Spreading Factors with Imperfect Orthogonality in LoRa Networks","volume":"68","author":"Amichi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chinchilla-Romero, N., Navarro-Ortiz, J., Mu\u00f1oz, P., and Ameigeiras, P. (2021). Collision Avoidance Resource Allocation for LoRaWAN. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041218"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109525","article-title":"Efficient Online Resource Allocation in Large-Scale LoRaWAN Networks: A Multi-Agent Approach","volume":"221","author":"Ramirez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2018.5202","article-title":"Integrating Power Assignment into Energy-Efficient Routing in E2E Retransmission Systems","volume":"13","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1109\/TSUSC.2026.3666121","article-title":"Energy-Aware DRL-Based Dual-Perception Fountain Codes for Resource-Constrained UASNs","volume":"11","author":"Zhu","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Sustain. Comput."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3564530","article-title":"LMAC: Efficient carrier-sense multiple access for LoRa","volume":"19","author":"Gamage","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.18280\/ts.370405","article-title":"A Synchronous Transmission Method for Array Signals of Sensor Network under Resonance Technology","volume":"37","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trait. Signal"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2009.0011","article-title":"Biomimetics: Lessons from nature\u2014An overview","volume":"367","author":"Bhushan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beni, G. (2020). Swarm Intelligence. Complex Social and Behavioral Systems: Game Theory and Agent-Based Models, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0368-0_530"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2013.062613.00014","article-title":"On Swarm Intelligence Inspired Self-Organized Networking: Its Bionic Mechanisms, Designing Principles and Optimization Approaches","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1108\/EC-08-2024-0709","article-title":"An Improved Sand Cat Swarm Optimization Algorithm and Its Application to Agricultural Robot Path Planning","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9113","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2022.3225313","article-title":"Quantum Particle Swarm Optimization for Task Offloading in Mobile Edge Computing","volume":"19","author":"Dong","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2022.111352","article-title":"Excitatory and inhibitory interactions affect the balance of chorus activity and energy efficiency in the aggregations of male frogs: Numerical simulations using a hybrid dynamical model","volume":"558","author":"Aihara","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2011.09.013","article-title":"Energy Efficient Self-Organizing Control for Wireless Sensor Networks Inspired by Calling Behavior of Frogs","volume":"35","author":"Mutazono","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181117","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.181117","article-title":"Mathematical modelling and application of frog choruses as an autonomous distributed communication system","volume":"6","author":"Aihara","year":"2019","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.1996.0056","article-title":"Callers and Satellites: Chorus Behaviour in Anurans as a Stochastic Dynamic Game","volume":"51","author":"Lucas","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6153\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T04:11:12Z","timestamp":1790741472000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6153"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s26196153"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26196153","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]}}}