{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:13:36Z","timestamp":1792790016322,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["12102423"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12102423"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["12572210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12572210"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["12102423"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12102423"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["12572210"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12572210"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific Instrument Developing Project of Shenzhen University","award":["2023YQ011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YQ011"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01vy4gh70","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Scientific Instrument Developing Project of Shenzhen University","award":["2024YQ001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YQ001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01vy4gh70","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2023YQ011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YQ011"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01vy4gh70","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2024YQ001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YQ001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01vy4gh70","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010877","name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20231120175055001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20231120175055001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010877","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["20231120175055001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20231120175055001"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/017n8df75","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFF0716900"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFF0716900"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High-frequency full-field vibration measurement using three-dimensional digital image correlation (3D-DIC) is limited by the trade-off between camera frame rate, spatial resolution, and measurement noise. This study presents a method to overcome the frame-rate limitation of 3D-DIC vibration measurement by combining stroboscopic equivalent-time sampling with spatiotemporal noise decoupling. Short-pulse stroboscopic illumination freezes structural motion at different vibration phases, allowing a low-frame-rate stereo camera system to reconstruct high-frequency periodic responses through inter-cycle phase sampling. The measured three-dimensional displacement fields are further processed as space\u2013time data, where target-frequency extraction and spatial-frequency filtering are combined to suppress noise and enhance small-amplitude vibration responses. The proposed method was experimentally validated using a plastic plate vibrating at 251.1 Hz. With an actual camera frame rate of approximately 8.34 fps and an equivalent temporal sampling frequency of 2511 Hz, the reconstructed mode shape achieved a Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) value of 0.9233, comparable to that obtained using a high-speed camera (0.9225), while providing higher spatial resolution and lower hardware cost. A pulse-width experiment on an aluminum plate vibrating at 7154 Hz demonstrated the influence of stroboscopic exposure duration on measurement accuracy. The proposed approach was further integrated into the EMODE-1 full-field vibration measurement system and applied to a Lenovo ThinkPad touchpad vibrating at 1051 Hz, achieving a MAC value of 0.8878 compared with continuous-scanning laser Doppler vibrometry. The results demonstrate the potential of the proposed method for high-frequency full-field vibration sensing of periodic structures using compact and cost-effective imaging systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26196164","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:10:54Z","timestamp":1790673054000},"page":"6164","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Frame-Rate-Independent High-Frequency 3D-DIC Vibration Measurement Enabled by Stroboscopic Equivalent-Time Sampling and Physics-Guided Spatiotemporal Filtering"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6396-2652","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chao","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lenovo (Shanghai) Information Technology Co., Ltd., No. 696 Songtao Road, Shanghai 201203, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Penglong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Measurement and Detection, College of Physics and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2060-8067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhipeng","family":"Sheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tech Academy, Shenzhen Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Shizhan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Measurement and Detection, College of Physics and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Measurement and Detection, College of Physics and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Jixu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Measurement and Detection, College of Physics and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zeren","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Measurement and Detection, College of Physics and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8022-9002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Measurement and Detection, College of Physics and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Shenzhen University, 3688 Nanhai Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2015.12.005","article-title":"Vibration-fatigue damage accumulation for structural dynamics with nonlinearities","volume":"106","author":"Proso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"409","article-title":"Multiaxial vibration fatigue\u2014A theoretical and experimental comparison","volume":"76\u201377","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.107052","article-title":"Effect of boundary conditions in the experimental determination of structural damping","volume":"146","author":"Geweth","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apm.2006.03.020","article-title":"Finite element analysis and modeling of structure with bolted joints","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Model."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3126","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.46.003126","article-title":"Multipoint laser vibrometer for modal analysis","volume":"46","author":"MacPherson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9257","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.009257","article-title":"High-speed stereo-digital image correlation using a single color high-speed camera","volume":"57","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28134","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.436196","article-title":"LDV-induced stroboscopic digital image correlation for high spatial resolution vibration measurement","volume":"29","author":"Sheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20742","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.521211","article-title":"Interferometric-scale full-field vibration measurement by a combination of digital image correlation and laser vibrometer","volume":"32","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.55.001593","article-title":"Interferometric vibration analysis by wavefront reconstruction","volume":"55","author":"Powell","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1869","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.16.001869","article-title":"Detection and measurement of small vibrations using electronic speckle pattern interferometry","volume":"16","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4241","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.19.004241","article-title":"Digital speckle-pattern shearing interferometry","volume":"19","author":"Nakadate","year":"1980","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2016.10.023","article-title":"An international review of laser Doppler vibrometry: Making light work of vibration measurement","volume":"99","author":"Rothberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1006\/mssp.1998.1209","article-title":"Modal testing using a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer","volume":"13","author":"Stanbridge","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2003.07.005","article-title":"Measuring area vibration mode shapes with a continuous-scan LDV","volume":"35","author":"Stanbridge","year":"2004","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2009.08.002","article-title":"A constant scanning LDV technique for cylindrical structures: Simulation and measurement","volume":"24","author":"Schwingshackl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Xu, T., Chen, T., Su, S., Huang, J., and Li, Y. (2024). Operational deflection shape measurements on bladed disks with continuous scanning laser Doppler vibrometry. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24113413"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1117\/12.7972925","article-title":"Digital imaging techniques in experimental stress analysis","volume":"21","author":"Peters","year":"1982","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202500184","DOI":"10.1002\/adpr.202500184","article-title":"Techniques and Advances in Ultrafast Photography","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Photonics Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2021.108040","article-title":"Low-speed cameras system for 3D-DIC vibration measurements in the kHz range","volume":"162","author":"Neri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2024.112179","article-title":"Full-field measurements of high-frequency micro-vibration under operational conditions using sub-Nyquist-rate 3D-DIC and compressed sensing with order analysis","volume":"224","author":"Kato","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2026.114407","article-title":"Measuring full-field vibration and dynamic deformation using single time-gated camera stereo-digital image correlation","volume":"255","author":"Zhao","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z. (1999). Flexible camera calibration by viewing a plane from unknown orientations. Proceedings of the Seventh IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Kerkyra, Greece, 20\u201327 September 1999, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.1999.791289"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/JRPROC.1949.232969","article-title":"Communication in the Presence of Noise","volume":"37","author":"Shannon","year":"1949","journal-title":"Proc. IRE"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6164\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T09:14:41Z","timestamp":1790673281000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6164"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s26196164"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26196164","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]}}}