{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T14:48:51Z","timestamp":1791902931433,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791244800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791244800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations are an important component of non-terrestrial networks (NTNs) in future sixth-generation (6G) systems, owing to their wide coverage and low propagation delay. However, due to the high-speed orbital movement of LEO satellites, the serving satellites of massive ground terminals change frequently, resulting in frequent and highly concurrent handover requests. Existing group handover methods usually follow a two-stage paradigm that first forms terminal groups according to similarity features and then performs target satellite selection or handover scheduling for the pre-formed groups. Such a grouping-first strategy may restrict the group handover action space and exclude potentially better terminal-satellite-slot combinations from consideration. To address this issue, this paper proposes an executable-action-based group handover paradigm, where terminal grouping, target satellite selection, and handover-slot assignment are unified in the action construction process. Based on this formulation, the group handover problem is modeled as a large-scale combinatorial optimization problem. To solve it efficiently, this paper proposes a Group Handover Action Column Generation (GHACG) algorithm. In the column generation framework, the algorithm starts from a restricted set of executable actions and iteratively solves the corresponding restricted master problem. The obtained dual prices are then used to guide heuristic pricing to generate high-value executable action columns, and an integer action recovery procedure is designed to obtain a feasible group handover scheme. Simulation results show that GHACG outperforms representative single-user and group handover baselines in terms of handover success rate, signaling overhead, number of group handover actions, handover rate, and handover objective value J. Under the largest simulated terminal scale of 1.2\u00d7105, GHACG improves the handover success rate by 11.17% compared with the best-performing baseline.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26196309","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T10:46:29Z","timestamp":1791283589000},"page":"6309","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Column Generation for Action-Based Group Handover Optimization in Large-Scale LEO Satellite Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Yang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6450-1969","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wen","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1131-2275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenliang","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Heng","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhongliang","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3327","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2024.3492720","article-title":"Space-Air-Ground Integrated Wireless Networks for 6G: Basics, Key Technologies, and Future Trends","volume":"42","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.2100191","article-title":"Toward 6G Non-Terrestrial Networks","volume":"36","author":"Araniti","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2024.112575","article-title":"Deep Reinforcement Learning for Agile Earth Observation Satellites Scheduling Problem with Variable Image Duration","volume":"169","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Soft Comput."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2020.09.002","article-title":"Mission Planning Problem for Optical Video Satellite Imaging with Variable Image Duration: A Greedy Algorithm Based on Heuristic Knowledge","volume":"66","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2026.133882","article-title":"Multi-Satellite and Multi-Payload Collaborative Mission Planning Problem Facing Disaster Monitoring: A Bi-Level Metaheuristic Approach","volume":"333","author":"Yao","year":"2027","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2025.3610398","article-title":"SIMAC: A Semantic-Driven Integrated Multimodal Sensing and Communication Framework","volume":"44","author":"Peng","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"3GPP (2018). Study on New Radio (NR) to Support Non-Terrestrial Networks, 3rd Generation Partnership Project."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fossa, C.E., Raines, R.A., Gunsch, G.H., and Temple, M.A. (1998). An Overview of the IRIDIUM (R) Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite System. Proceedings of the IEEE 1998 National Aerospace and Electronics Conference. NAECON 1998. Celebrating 50 Years (Cat. No.98CH36185), Dayton, OH, USA, 17 July 1998, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAECON.1998.710110"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"3GPP (2023). Solutions for NR to Support Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) (Release 16), 3rd Generation Partnership Project."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2025.3594396","article-title":"A Dual Threshold Handover Scheme for Improved Service Stability in Large-Scale Optical Satellite Networks","volume":"75","author":"Huang","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16839","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2026.3671367","article-title":"A Geodesic Distance-Based Conditional Handover Strategy for LEO Satellite-Based Non-Terrestrial Networks","volume":"75","author":"Lee","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14056","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2026.3657599","article-title":"Orbit Aware-Based Satellite Selection Method for Reducing Handover Frequency in LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"14","author":"Kashiwagi","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2810","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2021.3118214","article-title":"Session Duration Between Handovers in Dense LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"10","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lei, Y.H., Cao, L.F., and Da Han, M. (2021). A Handover Strategy Based on User Dynamic Preference for LEO Satellite. Proceedings of the 2021 7th International Conference on Computer and Communications (ICCC), Chengdu, China, 10\u201313 December 2021, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCC54389.2021.9674431"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41033","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2026.3672511","article-title":"Developing Robust Hybrid Decision-Making Satellite Selection Framework Prioritizing Geodesic Directional Vectors in LEO Networks","volume":"14","author":"Iskandar","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.fa.2023-0168.202601","article-title":"Multi-Attribute and Multi-Point Cooperative Handover Strategy for LEO Satellite Communication Systems","volume":"23","author":"Hongguang","year":"2026","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2021.3111680","article-title":"A Network-Flows-Based Satellite Handover Strategy for LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.fa.2023-0237.202512","article-title":"A Novel Handover Moment Determination Method under a Nonuniform Spatial User Distribution Based on a Multiuser-Directed Graph for LEO-SIN","volume":"22","author":"Wenliang","year":"2025","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.1109\/OJCOMS.2025.3541962","article-title":"Handover Strategy for LEO Satellite Networks Using Bipartite Graph and Hysteresis Margin","volume":"6","author":"Eydian","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Commun. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J.-Y., Sun, Z., Zhang, D., Zeng, Z., Lin, M., and Wang, J.-B. (2026). MDP-Based Satellite-Ground Handover Schemes in 5G Satellite-Terrestrial Integrated Networks. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2026.3699642"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13579","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2024.3407358","article-title":"A Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Handover Scheme for Mega-Constellation Under Dynamic Propagation Conditions","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2834","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2024.3470890","article-title":"Handover for Multi-Beam LEO Satellite Networks: A Multi-Objective Reinforcement Learning Method","volume":"28","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3582379","article-title":"Handover Optimization for UAV-Assisted LEO Satellite Networks Based on IPPO and Three-Sided Matching Theory","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7807","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2026.3673300","article-title":"HAS-DDQN: Throughput-Handover Balancing in LEO Satellite Networks for High-Speed Rail","volume":"62","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6863","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2025.3642278","article-title":"Intelligent Handover Scheme for Improved 6G NTN LEO Satellite Network Performance","volume":"25","author":"Choi","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12787","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2026.3667917","article-title":"Learning When and Where to Handover: A Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning Framework for Dense LEO Satellite Constellations","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11888","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2025.3570255","article-title":"LEO Satellite Handover Using Advantage Actor-Critic Algorithm in Giant Constellation Network","volume":"61","author":"Tong","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2025.3554818","article-title":"Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning Based Handover Strategy for LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16368","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2025.3594697","article-title":"Scalable Satellite Handover Management in Nonterrestrial Networks: A Distributed MADQL Approach","volume":"61","author":"Badini","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4012","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2025.3611493","article-title":"Twin Adaptive Distributional Reinforcement Learning for Robust Handover Control in LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8591","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2024.3434771","article-title":"User-Centric Satellite Handover for Multiple Traffic Profiles Using Deep Q-Learning","volume":"60","author":"Badini","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35905","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2026.3698242","article-title":"AI-Enabled Digital Twin-Driven Handover and Resource Allocation in Multi-LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5247","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2024.3516479","article-title":"Beam Management in Low Earth Orbit Satellite Communication with Handover Frequency Control and Satellite-Terrestrial Spectrum Sharing","volume":"73","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3676","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2022.3221447","article-title":"Handover Analysis in Ultra-Dense LEO Satellite Networks with Beamforming Methods","volume":"72","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5215","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2026.3666666","article-title":"ISAC-Enabled Handover Design in LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"74","author":"Bhandari","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12010","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2026.3668195","article-title":"Joint AoI and Handover Optimization in Space-Air-Ground Integrated Network","volume":"25","author":"Lang","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18614","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2026.3674597","article-title":"Jointly Optimizing Satellite Handover and Power Allocation in LEO Satellite Network: A Dual-Agent Framework","volume":"75","author":"Zhang","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6813","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2025.3556324","article-title":"Multi-Orbit Multibeam Satellite Soft Handover Strategy Based on Rate-Splitting Multiple Access","volume":"24","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2026.3696350","article-title":"Seamless Beam Handover for Direct-to-Satellite IoT in Ultra-Dense Multi-Beam LEO Networks","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4355","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2026.3687390","article-title":"VNF Mapping and Selective Handover for eMBB and mMTC Services in a LEO Satellite Network","volume":"23","author":"Ahsan","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, L., Yang, X., and Bu, Z. (2022). A Group Handover Strategy for Massive User Terminals in LEO Satellite Networks. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE 96th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2022-Fall), London, UK, 26\u201329 September 2022, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTC2022-Fall57202.2022.10012912"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.fa.2024-0299.202502","article-title":"Double Grouping-Based Group Handover Scheme for Mega LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"22","author":"Hongtao","year":"2025","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, W., Guo, W., Yu, H., Zhang, K., and Zhao, X. (2024). Research on Group Handover Strategy of Low-Orbit Satellite Users. Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Satellite Internet (SAT-NET), Xi\u2019an, China, 25\u201327 October 2024, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAT-NET62854.2024.00010"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, K., Hua, C., Gu, P., and Xu, W. (2020). User Clustering and Proactive Group Handover Scheduling in LEO Satellite Networks. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Computing, Communications and IoT Applications (ComComAp), Beijing, China, 20\u201322 December 2020, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ComComAp51192.2020.9398872"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42768","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2977831","article-title":"Forecast Based Handover in an Extensible Multi-Layer LEO Mobile Satellite System","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2760","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3631967","article-title":"Multi-Layer Graph-Based Inter-Satellite Group Handover Strategy in LEO-IoT Networks","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.S.W., Zhou, G.-L., and Tsai, H.-L. (2024). Load Balanced Handover Planning for LEO Satellite Communication Networks. Proceedings of the 2024 Intermountain Engineering, Technology and Computing (IETC), Logan, UT, USA, 13\u201314 May 2024, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IETC61393.2024.10564237"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, S., Zhao, K., Li, W., Ye, Y., and Fang, Y. (2025). Handover Algorithm Based on User Clustering and Graph Matching for Large-Scale LEO Satellite Network. Proceedings of the 2025 10th International Conference on Computer and Communication System (ICCCS), Chengdu, China, 18\u201321 April 2025, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCS65393.2025.11069820"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, W., Li, Y., Liu, S., and Liu, L. (2023). Joint User Association and Handover Strategy for Large Scale LEO Satellite Constellation Networks. Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 23rd International Conference on Communication Technology (ICCT), Wuxi, China, 20\u201322 October 2023, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCT59356.2023.10419766"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"9","article-title":"An Intelligent Handover Optimization Framework for Signaling Storm Reduction in 5G\u2013Satellite Integrated Networks","volume":"6","author":"Keramati","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Model. Simul. Electr. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Q., Li, X., Ji, H., and Zhang, H. (2023). User Grouping-Based Beam Handover Scheme with Load-Balancing for LEO Satellite Networks. Proceedings of the GLOBECOM 2023\u20142023 IEEE Global Communications Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 4\u20138 December 2023, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM54140.2023.10436950"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15255","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2024.3412287","article-title":"Multi-Agent Fingerprints-Enhanced Distributed Intelligent Handover Algorithm in LEO Satellite Networks","volume":"73","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanescu, D., and Buzducea, A. (2025). An Overview of Satellite Link Budget Sensitivity Based on Digital Modulation Schemes in Multi-Orbit Satellite Networks. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15073473"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6309\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T14:23:12Z","timestamp":1791901392000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6309"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s26196309"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26196309","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]]}}}