{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T11:56:22Z","timestamp":1791374182017,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002301","name":"Estonian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRG2532"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRG2532"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002301","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PRG2532"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRG2532"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00jjeja18","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Software-defined electric vehicles have reached micromobility, creating a growing need to evaluate how controller software shapes drive performance and energy use. This requires experimental platforms with quantified emulation fidelity and measurement performance. This paper presents a scenario-based hardware-in-the-loop platform combining a production e-scooter drive, a controlled magnetic particle brake, and a real-time road-load model. The platform reproduces rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, and speed-gated inertial demand for a nominal 90 kg vehicle. Across eight repetitions of a scaled ECE-15 urban cycle, including a cold first run, the protective load cap retained 99.51% of the commanded load impulse. A post hoc sensitivity analysis of the seven warm runs gave 99.71%. Measured torque and speed tracking root-mean-square errors over all eight runs were 0.704 N\u00b7m and 0.593 km\/h. Separate electrical characterization produced a machine efficiency map peaking at 86.3% and cycle-energy measurements with a coefficient of variation of 0.72%. Subsampling unfiltered 200 kHz recordings at every sampling offset gave a maximum absolute cycle-energy error of 0.14% at 2 kHz, a hundredfold reduction in retained samples under the tested conditions. These results provide a quantified experimental basis for micromobility drive testing and subsequent controller-software comparisons.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26196320","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T11:34:31Z","timestamp":1791372871000},"page":"6320","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Scenario-Based Hardware-in-the-Loop Platform for Real-Time Road-Load Emulation on Production Micromobility Drives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4390-0035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Assem","family":"Meghawer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0716-4977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"V\u00f5ip","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2477-3062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahmoud","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8035-3970","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anton","family":"Rass\u00f5lkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, S. 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