{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T16:58:49Z","timestamp":1791565129119,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007751","name":"AGH University of Krakow","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16.16.150.545"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16.16.150.545"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007751","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007751","name":"AGH University of Krakow","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["150000-501.00-10000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["150000-501.00-10000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007751","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["16.16.150.545"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16.16.150.545"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00bas1c41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["150000-501.00-10000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["150000-501.00-10000"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00bas1c41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Long-term structural health monitoring of underground heritage sites is challenging because of high humidity, limited accessibility, complex geological conditions, and aggressive saline environments. This study presents the implementation and long-term assessment of an integrated multi-sensor telemetric monitoring system deployed in two historically significant sites: Dragon\u2019s Den Cave beneath Wawel Castle and St. Kinga\u2019s Chapel in the Wieliczka Salt Mine. The system combines displacement sensors, strain measurements on rock anchors, and microclimate monitoring to assess structural behavior and support the early detection of potentially hazardous changes. Monitoring was conducted for four years in the cave and two years in the salt mine. Structural measurements were analyzed together with environmental data to distinguish temperature- and humidity-related sensor responses from actual deformation. Periodic geodetic surveys provided independent verification of the telemetric measurements. Both structures remained stable throughout the observation periods. Telemetric measurements recorded changes of up to 0.16 mm at the monitored extensometer locations, while geodetic surveys indicated cumulative displacements of up to approximately 2.6 mm horizontally and 2.4 mm vertically. The results demonstrate that integrating structural and environmental sensing with periodic geodetic verification enables reliable long-term monitoring under demanding underground conditions. The proposed minimally invasive and scalable approach supports preventive conservation and safety management of underground heritage structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s26196329","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T11:34:31Z","timestamp":1791372871000},"page":"6329","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multi-Sensor Monitoring of Underground Heritage Sites: A Case Study of the Dragon\u2019s Den Cave and St. Kinga\u2019s Chapel in Poland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2270-3174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mateusz","family":"Jab\u0142o\u0144ski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Geo-Data Science, Geodesy, and Environmental Engineering, Al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5771-5790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wojciech","family":"Ja\u015bkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Geo-Data Science, Geodesy, and Environmental Engineering, Al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6255","DOI":"10.24294\/jipd.v8i8.6255","article-title":"Exploring industrial hazards and implementing risk control measures in the mining sector","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Infrastruct. Policy Dev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wojciechowska, G., Bednarz, \u0141., Doli\u0144ska, N., Opa\u0142ka, P., Krupa, M., and Imnadze, N. (2024). Intelligent monitoring system for integrated management of historical buildings. Buildings, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14072108"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Monsalve, J.J., Baggett, J.G., Soni, A., Ripepi, N., and Hazzard, J. (2019, January 23\u201326). Stability analysis of an underground limestone mine using terrestrial laser scanning with stochastic discrete element modeling. Proceedings of the 53rd U.S. Rock Mechanics\/Geomechanics Symposium, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2023.05.052","article-title":"Safe mining operations through technological advancement","volume":"175","author":"Onifade","year":"2023","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"67","article-title":"Liquidation of post-exploitation goafs in borehole salt mine as a method of terrain surface protection [Likwidacja pustek poeksploatacyjnych w otworowej kopalni soli jako metoda ochrony powierzchni terenu]","volume":"66","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prz. G\u00f3r."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lupo, J.F. (2008). Guidelines for stabilizing historic mine workings. Tailings and Mine Waste \u201908: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference, Vail, CO, USA, 19\u201322 October 2008, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203882306.ch14"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Stefano, F., Torresani, A., Farella, E., Pierdicca, R., Menna, F., and Remondino, F. (2021). 3D surveying of underground built heritage: Opportunities and challenges of mobile technologies. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132313289"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40494-021-00487-3","article-title":"Geo-environmental monitoring and 3D finite elements stability analysis for site investigation of underground monuments: Horemheb tomb (KV57), Luxor, Egypt","volume":"9","author":"Hemeda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Herit. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2006.09.002","article-title":"Methods for documenting historical agro-industrial buildings: A comparative study and a simple photogrammetric method","volume":"7","author":"Arias","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.-J., and Choi, S.-O. (2019). Analyzing the stability of underground mines using 3D point cloud data and discontinuum numerical analysis. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11040945"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2019.01.007","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning digitalization in underground constructions","volume":"38","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Wesseloo, J. (2017). Integrating photogrammetry and discrete fracture network modelling for improved conditional simulation of underground wedge stability. Deep Mining 2017: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Deep and High Stress Mining, Australian Centre for Geomechanics."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Bishop, R., Monsalve, J., Baggett, J., Soni, A., and Ripepi, N. (2018, January 24\u201327). A comparison of laser scanning and photogrammetry in an underground limestone mine. Proceedings of the SME Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Soko\u0142a-Szewio\u0142a, V., and Jarczyk, P. (2025). Multivariate analysis of the accuracy of the basic geodetic control network for guiding the axis of a tunnel built using a TBM machine on the LK104 railway line. Mine Surveying and Mining Area Protection: Proceedings of the 18th Conference on Mine Surveying and Protection of Mining Areas, Ustro\u0144, Poland, 22\u201324 October 2025, Taylor & Francis Group."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"87","article-title":"Reliability of geodetic control measurements of high dams as a guarantee of the safety of the construction and the natural environment","volume":"66","author":"Podawca","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alazmi, Y.H., Al-Zu\u2019bi, M., Al-Kheetan, M.J., and Rabi, M. (2025). A Review of Robotic Applications in the Management of Structural Health Monitoring in the Saudi Arabian Construction Sector. Buildings, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202507.1078.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fallahy, S., Rezazadeh, N., Caputo, F., Lughmani, W.A., and Luca, A.D. (2026). Reliability-Aware Selective Fusion of Visual and Class-Associated Acoustic Data for Concrete-Surface Classification Under Simulated Sensor Degradation. Buildings, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings16173518"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"3","article-title":"Robotics integration in structural health monitoring in the Saudi construction projects","volume":"179","author":"Rabi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Smart Infrastruct. Constr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Li, Q., Li, Q., Wang, F., Cheng, Y., and Yan, C. (2026). Design and Optimization of Bottom-Hole Temperature\u2013Pressure Combinations in Gas Production from Gas Hydrates via Carbon Dioxide Replacement Strategy. Energies, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/en19153536"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Wang, F., Wu, J., Li, Q., and Zhang, G. (2026). Multivariate Coupling Model and Reservoir Characteristics of Enhanced Geothermal Reservoirs. Energies, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/en19133180"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rebscher, D., Reichertz, F.G., and Schefer, S. (2023, January 24\u201328). Long-term investigations at the Mont Terri rock laboratory of tilt and their near- and far-field influences. Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria. EGU23-11304.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu23-11304"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3006","DOI":"10.4236\/ojbm.2025.135158","article-title":"Examining the critical role and significance of safety management practices in the mining industry","volume":"13","author":"Fomude","year":"2025","journal-title":"Open J. Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"53","article-title":"Roadways monitoring as a basis of support design and construction verification [Monitoring wyrobisk korytarzowych jako podstawa weryfikacji metod projektowych i przyj\u0119tego schematu obudowy]","volume":"10","author":"Niedbalski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prz. G\u00f3r."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2762142","DOI":"10.1155\/gfl\/2762142","article-title":"Numerical Simulation Investigation of Fracture Propagation Behavior Patterns and Sensitivity Factors of Oil Shale Reservoirs in the Xunyi Region Considering the Influence of Natural Fracture","volume":"2025","author":"Feng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Kowalski, A. (2023). Assessment of deformation of a historic underground chamber using geodetic and non-contact measurements on the example of the Chapel of St. Kinga in the Wieliczka Salt Mine [Ocena deformacji zabytkowej podziemnej komory przy u\u017cyciu pomiar\u00f3w geodezyjnych i bezkontaktowych na przyk\u0142adzie Kaplicy \u015bw. Kingi]. Wsp\u00f3\u0142czesne Problemy Miernictwa G\u00f3rniczego i Ochrony Teren\u00f3w G\u00f3rniczych, G\u0142\u00f3wny Instytut G\u00f3rnictwa\u2014Pa\u0144stwowy Instytut Badawczy."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2026, September 02). Historic Centre of Krak\u00f3w. Available online: https:\/\/whc.unesco.org\/en\/list\/32\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7591","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-021-02382-4","article-title":"Micro-displacement monitoring in caves at the Southern Alps\u2013Dinarides\u2013Southwestern Pannonian Basin junction","volume":"80","author":"Stemberk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2026, September 02). Wieliczka and Bochnia Royal Salt Mines. Available online: https:\/\/whc.unesco.org\/en\/list\/29\/."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"673","article-title":"Analysis of convergence and deformation measurements based on classical geodetic surveys and terrestrial laser scanning in Wieliczka Salt Mine","volume":"18","author":"Lipecki","year":"2018","journal-title":"SGEM"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2026, September 02). Sisgeo: Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Systems. Available online: https:\/\/sisgeo.com\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, G., Li, W., Wang, B., and Ho, S.C.M. (2017). A review of rock bolt monitoring using smart sensors. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040776"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9691","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-60339-5","article-title":"Investigation of temperature effects on wide steel box girder of suspension bridge based on long-term monitoring data","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caspani, V.F., Tonelli, D., Poli, F., and Zonta, D. (2022). Designing a Structural Health Monitoring System Accounting for Temperature Compensation. Infrastructures, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures7010005"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, C., Yuan, Y., Tang, Y., and Tian, B. (2022). Application of Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) in the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) Industry. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22010265"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6329\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T16:44:36Z","timestamp":1791564276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/26\/19\/6329"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s26196329"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s26196329","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]}}}