{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T06:32:16Z","timestamp":1779172336113,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]],"date-time":"2019-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Soil Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Arid and semi-arid landscapes often show a patchwork of bare and vegetated spaces. Their heterogeneous patterns can be of natural origin, but may also indicate soil degradation. This study investigates the use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery to identify the degradation status of soils, based on the hypothesis that vegetation cover can be used as a proxy for estimating the soils\u2019 health status. To assess the quality of the UAV-derived products, we compare a conventional field-derived map (FM) with two modelled maps based on (i) vegetation cover (RGB map), and (ii) vegetation cover, topographic information, and a flow accumulation analysis (RGB+DEM map). All methods were able to identify areas of soil degradation but differed in the extent of classified soil degradation, with the RGB map classifying the least amount as degraded. The RGB+DEM map classified 12% more as degraded than the FM, due to the wider perspective of the UAV compared to conventional field mapping. Overall, conventional UAVs provide a valuable tool for soil mapping in heterogeneous landscapes where manual field sampling is very time consuming. Additionally, the UAVs\u2019 planform view from a bird\u2019s-eye perspective can overcome the limited view from the surveyors\u2019 (ground-based) vantage point.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/soilsystems3020033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,9]],"date-time":"2019-05-09T11:22:35Z","timestamp":1557400955000},"page":"33","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Soil Degradation Mapping in Drylands Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5817-843X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juliane","family":"Krenz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Geography and Environmental Change, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Philip","family":"Greenwood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Geography and Environmental Change, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nikolaus J.","family":"Kuhn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Geography and Environmental Change, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-8238.2008.00413.x","article-title":"The global biogeography of semi-arid periodic vegetation patterns","volume":"17","author":"Deblauwe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.2170","article-title":"Eco-geomorphological processes within grasslands, shrublands and badlans in the semi-arid Karro, South Africa","volume":"23","author":"Dickie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(98)00056-3","article-title":"Banded vegetation near Broken Hill, Australia: Significance of surface roughness and soil physical properties","volume":"37","author":"Dunkerley","year":"1999","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016172308462","article-title":"Spatial patterns of surface soil properties and vegetation in a Mediterranean semi-arid steppe","volume":"241","author":"Maestre","year":"2002","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-11-1717-2007","article-title":"Eco-geomorphology of banded vegetation patterns in arid and semi-arid regions","volume":"11","author":"Saco","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(99)00053-3","article-title":"Soil and water components of banded vegetation patterns","volume":"37","author":"Valentin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0022-0477.2001.00588.x","article-title":"Periodic spotted patterns in semi-arid vegetation explained by a propagation-inhibition model","volume":"89","author":"Couteron","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.2307\/2265615","article-title":"On the Spatial Pattern of Soil Nutrients in Desert Ecosystems","volume":"77","author":"Schlesinger","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1126\/science.247.4946.1043","article-title":"Biological Feedbacks in Global Desertification","volume":"247","author":"Schlesinger","year":"1990","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(98)00072-1","article-title":"The evolution and significance of soil\u2013vegetation patterns following land abandonment and fire in Spain","volume":"37","author":"Cammeraat","year":"1999","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1002\/1096-9837(200008)25:8<847::AID-ESP103>3.0.CO;2-Q","article-title":"Mound development as an interaction of individual plants with soil, water erosion and sedimentation processes on slopes","volume":"25","author":"Bochet","year":"2000","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1006\/jare.1995.0198","article-title":"The effect of patchy distribution of Stipa tenacissima L. on runoff and erosion","volume":"36","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009828432690","article-title":"Multiscale soil and vegetation patchiness along a gradient of herbivore impact in a semi-arid grazing system in West Africa","volume":"148","author":"Rietkerk","year":"2000","journal-title":"Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1997.03615995006100040018x","article-title":"Runoff and Soil Loss Response to Vegetation Removal in a Semiarid Environment","volume":"61","author":"Castillo","year":"1997","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.2006.tb03824.x","article-title":"The Effects of Vegetation and Soil Type on Streambank Erosion, Southwestern Virginia, Usa1","volume":"42","author":"Wynn","year":"2006","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9658(2001)082[0050:VPFISA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Vegetation Pattern Formation in Semi-Arid Grazing Systems","volume":"82","author":"HilleRisLambers","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1086\/342078","article-title":"Self-Organization of Vegetation in Arid Ecosystems","volume":"160","author":"Rietkerk","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. Nat."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"FAO, and ISRIC (2019, February 15). UNEP Soil and Terrain Database for Southern Africa, 1:2 M scale. FAO, Rome. Available online: https:\/\/www.isric.org\/projects\/soil-and-terrain-soter-database-programme."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2013.07.007","article-title":"Harmonisation of the soil map of Africa at the continental scale","volume":"211\u2013212","author":"Dewitte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hengl, T., Heuvelink, G.B.M., Kempen, B., Leenaars, J.G.B., Walsh, M.G., Shepherd, K.D., Sila, A., MacMillan, R.A., de Mendes Jesus, J., and Tamene, L. (2015). Mapping Soil Properties of Africa at 250 m Resolution: Random Forests Significantly Improve Current Predictions. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125814"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paterson, G., Turner, D., Wiese, L., van Zijl, G., Clarke, C., and van Tol, J. (2015). Spatial soil information in South Africa: Situational analysis, limitations and challenges. South Afr. J. Sci., 111.","DOI":"10.17159\/sajs.2015\/20140178"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.01.024","article-title":"Long-term studies of land degradation in the Sneeuberg uplands, eastern Karoo, South Africa: A synthesis","volume":"285","author":"Boardman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1002\/jpln.200421414","article-title":"Digital soil mapping using artificial neural networks","volume":"168","author":"Behrens","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175084","article-title":"Digital Soil Map of the World","volume":"325","author":"Sanchez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"63","article-title":"The relevance of scale in soil maps","volume":"32","author":"Nussbaum","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull. BGS"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2009.07.010","article-title":"Multi-scale digital terrain analysis and feature selection for digital soil mapping","volume":"155","author":"Behrens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.4141\/cjss2010-007","article-title":"Comparing and evaluating digital soil mapping methods in a Hungarian forest reserve","volume":"91","author":"Heil","year":"2011","journal-title":"Can. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Hengl, T. (2009). A Practical Guide to Geostatistical Mapping, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2017.01.023","article-title":"Use of Landsat series data to analyse the spatial and temporal variations of land degradation in a dispersive soil environment: A case of King Sabata Dalindyebo local municipality in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa","volume":"100","author":"Dube","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts ABC"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-13-0270.1","article-title":"A Global Land Cover Climatology Using MODIS Data","volume":"53","author":"Broxton","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Brossard, M., Dampha, A., Deckers, J., Dewitte, O., Gallali, T., Hallett, S., Jones, R., and Kilasara, M. (2013). Soil Atlas of Africa, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, R., Zhang, S., Pu, L., Yang, J., Yang, C., Chen, J., Guan, C., Wang, Q., Chen, D., and Fu, B. (2016). Gully Erosion Mapping and Monitoring at Multiple Scales Based on Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data of the Sancha River Catchment, Northeast China. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi5110200"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3390","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4113390","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Monitoring Soil Erosion in Morocco","volume":"4","author":"Marzolff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.06.027","article-title":"Erosion processes in calanchi in the Upper Orcia Valley, Southern Tuscany, Italy based on multitemporal high-resolution terrestrial LiDAR and UAV surveys","volume":"269","author":"Neugirg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2844","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2016.1274450","article-title":"Too much of a good thing? The role of detailed UAV imagery in characterizing large-scale badland drainage characteristics in South-Eastern Spain","volume":"38","author":"Nobajas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133313515293","article-title":"Mapping landslide displacements using Structure from Motion (SfM) and image correlation of multi-temporal UAV photography","volume":"38","author":"Lucieer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"71","article-title":"Landform monitoring in active volcano by UAV and SfM-MVS technique","volume":"Volume XL\u20138","author":"Nakano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ISPRS\u2014International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3317","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6334","article-title":"Runoff and erosion from Australia\u2019s tropical semi-arid rangelands: Influence of ground cover for differing space and time scales","volume":"20","author":"Bartley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2006.05.001","article-title":"Leakiness: A new index for monitoring the health of arid and semiarid landscapes using remotely sensed vegetation cover and elevation data","volume":"7","author":"Ludwig","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1181","article-title":"The role of vegetation patterns in structuring runoff and sediment fluxes in drylands: Vegetation and sediment fluxes","volume":"30","year":"2005","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(91)90065-P","article-title":"The effect of sparse vegetative cover on erosion and sediment yield","volume":"123","author":"Rogers","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Esler, K.J., Milton, S.J., and Dean, W.R.J. (2006). Karoo Veld Ecology and Management, Briza. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Horowitz, A.J., and Walling, D.E. (2005). Land degradation and sediment dynamics in the South African Karoo. Sediment Budgets 2, Proceedings of the Symposium S1 Held during the Seventh IAHS Scientific Assembly at Foz do Igua\u00e7u, Brazil, 3\u20139 April 2005, Int Assoc Hydrological Sciences. IAHS Publication."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.785","article-title":"The influence of land management on soil erosion in the sneeuberg mountains, central Karoo, south Africa","volume":"18","author":"Boardman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mighall, T.M., Foster, I.D.L., Rowntree, K.M., and Boardman, J. (2012). Reconstructing recent land degradation in the semi-arid Karoo of South Africa: A palaeoecological study at Compassberg, Eastern Cape. Land Degrad. Dev.","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.2176"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1007\/s11368-011-0425-5","article-title":"The potential significance of the breaching of small farm dams in the Sneeuberg region, South Africa","volume":"11","author":"Boardman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Soils Sediments"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krenz, J., and Kuhn, N.J. (2018). Assessing Badland Sediment Sources Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Badlands Dynamics in a Context of Global Change, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-813054-4.00008-3"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110040323","article-title":"An assessment of support vector machines for land cover classification","volume":"23","author":"Huang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"116","article-title":"Comparison of support vector machine and maximum likelihood classification technique using satellite imagery","volume":"1","author":"Mondal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens. GIS"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2010.11.007","article-title":"A comparison of classification techniques to support land cover and land use analysis in tropical coastal zones","volume":"31","author":"Szuster","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.827257","article-title":"A relative evaluation of multiclass image classification by support vector machines","volume":"42","author":"Foody","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"34","article-title":"A standard land-cover classification scheme for remote-sensing applications in South Africa","volume":"92","author":"Thompson","year":"1996","journal-title":"South Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1071\/WF01031","article-title":"Accuracy assessment and validation of remotely sensed and other spatial information","volume":"10","author":"Congalton","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Wildland Fire"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Jensen, J.R. (1996). Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective, Prentice Hall. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Morgan, R.P.C. (2005). Soil Erosion and Conservation, Blackwell Publishing. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Cole, L.J. (1941). Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology, McGraw Hill."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1993.03615995005700020026x","article-title":"Soil Attribute Prediction Using Terrain Analysis","volume":"57","author":"Moore","year":"1993","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2481(08)00020-2","article-title":"Chapter 20 Soil Mapping Applications","volume":"Volume 33","author":"Hengl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Developments in Soil Science"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3452","article-title":"Flow network derivation from a high resolution DEM in a low relief, agrarian landscape","volume":"38","author":"Schwanghart","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2007.05.023","article-title":"A GIS-based method to calculate flow accumulation by considering dams and their specific operation time","volume":"34","author":"Marinoni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Weiss, A. (2001, January 9\u201313). Topographic position and landforms analysis. Proceedings of the Poster Presentation, ESRI User Conference, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/S0341-8162(01)00161-8","article-title":"Soil erosion under different rainfall intensities, surface roughness, and soil water regimes","volume":"46","author":"Helming","year":"2002","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00126-8","article-title":"Effects of landscape characteristics on land-cover class accuracy","volume":"84","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/02757259509532298","article-title":"A review of vegetation indices","volume":"13","author":"Bannari","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5535","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500300297","article-title":"Classifying rangeland vegetation type and coverage from NDVI time series using Fourier Filtered Cycle Similarity","volume":"26","author":"Geerken","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.05.023","article-title":"Support vector machines for recognition of semi-arid vegetation types using MISR multi-angle imagery","volume":"107","author":"Su","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/jpe\/rtm005","article-title":"Remote sensing imagery in vegetation mapping: A review","volume":"1","author":"Xie","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Plant Ecol."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/soilsystems4020033","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]],"date-time":"2019-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557187200000}}],"container-title":["Soil Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-8789\/3\/2\/33\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,3]],"date-time":"2025-08-03T22:38:51Z","timestamp":1754260731000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2571-8789\/3\/2\/33"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["soilsystems3020033"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/soilsystems3020033","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3390\/soilsystems4020033","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2571-8789"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2571-8789","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]]}}}