{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T02:54:03Z","timestamp":1776308043113,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]],"date-time":"2018-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1517356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"no funding"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sports"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is ample evidence that regular moderate to vigorous aerobic physical activity is related to a reduced risk for various forms of cancer to suggest a causal relationship. Exercise is associated with positive changes in fitness, body composition, and physical functioning as well as in patient-reported outcomes such as fatigue, sleep quality, or health-related quality of life. Emerging evidence indicates that exercise may also be directly linked to the control of tumour biology through direct effects on tumour-intrinsic factors. Beside a multitude of effects of exercise on the human body, one underscored effect of exercise training is to target the specific metabolism of tumour cells, namely the Warburg-type highly glycolytic metabolism. Tumour metabolism as well as the tumour\u2013host interaction may be selectively influenced by single bouts as well as regularly applied exercise, dependent on exercise intensity, duration, frequency and mode. High-intensity anaerobic exercise was shown to inhibit glycolysis and some studies in animals showed that effects on tumour growth might be stronger compared with moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. High-intensity exercise was shown to be safe in patients; however, it has to be applied carefully with an individualized prescription of exercise.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sports6010010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]],"date-time":"2018-01-31T12:41:24Z","timestamp":1517402484000},"page":"10","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Cancer and Exercise: Warburg Hypothesis, Tumour Metabolism and High-Intensity Anaerobic Exercise"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4836-1238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Hofmann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sports Sciences, Exercise Physiology, Training &amp; Training Therapy Research Group, University of Graz, Max Mell Allee 11, Graz 8010, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4032","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-16-0887","article-title":"Efficacy and Mechanisms of Aerobic Exercise on Cancer Initiation, Progression, and Metastasis: A Critical Systematic Review of In Vivo Preclinical Data","volume":"76","author":"Ashcraft","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4766","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-16-0067","article-title":"Physical Activity and Cancer Outcomes: A Precision Medicine Approach","volume":"22","author":"Friedenreich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2016.1548","article-title":"Association of Leisure-Time Physical Activity with Risk of 26 Types of Cancer in 1.44 Million Adults","volume":"176","author":"Moore","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2015.0226","article-title":"Midlife Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Incident Cancer, and Survival after Cancer in Men: The Cooper Center Longitudinal Study","volume":"1","author":"Lakoski","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.09.015","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms Linking Exercise to Cancer Prevention and Treatment","volume":"27","author":"Hojman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2009.03.002","article-title":"Australian Association for Exercise and Sport Science position stand: Optimising cancer outcomes through exercise","volume":"12","author":"Hayes","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181e0c112","article-title":"American College of Sports Medicine roundtable on exercise guidelines for cancer survivors","volume":"42","author":"Schmitz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2015-094927","article-title":"The dose-response effect of physical activity on cancer mortality: Findings from 71 prospective cohort studies","volume":"50","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2015.0533","article-title":"Leisure time physical activity and mortality: A detailed pooled analysis of the dose-response relationship","volume":"175","author":"Arem","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i3857","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i3857","article-title":"Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: Systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013","volume":"354","author":"Kyu","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12581","article-title":"Exercise as medicine-evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases","volume":"25","author":"Pedersen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc2325","article-title":"Mechanisms linking physical activity with cancer","volume":"8","author":"McTiernan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-017-4129-4","article-title":"Every exercise bout matters: Linking systemic exercise responses to breast cancer control","volume":"162","author":"Dethlefsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1085\/jgp.8.6.519","article-title":"The Metabolism of Tumors in the Body","volume":"8","author":"Warburg","year":"1927","journal-title":"J. Gen. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1126\/science.123.3191.309","article-title":"On the origin of cancer cells","volume":"123","author":"Warburg","year":"1956","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc.2017.78","article-title":"Exercise-dependent regulation of the tumour microenvironment","volume":"17","author":"Koelwyn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-016-3970-1","article-title":"Exercise regulates breast cancer cell viability: Systemic training adaptations versus acute exercise responses","volume":"159","author":"Dethlefsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2016.01.011","article-title":"Voluntary Running Suppresses Tumor Growth through Epinephrine- and IL-6-Dependent NK Cell Mobilization and Redistribution","volume":"23","author":"Pedersen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1200\/EDBK_173836","article-title":"Bench-to-Bedside Approaches for Personalized Exercise Therapy in Cancer","volume":"37","author":"Jones","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. Educ. Book"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1042\/bst0300258","article-title":"Lactate shuttles in nature","volume":"30","author":"Brooks","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5591","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2009.178350","article-title":"Cell-cell and intracellular lactate shuttles","volume":"587","author":"Brooks","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.007724","article-title":"Lactate shuttles at a glance: From physiological paradigms to anti-cancer treatments","volume":"4","author":"Draoui","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rtega-Gomes, N., Vizca\u00edno, J.R., Attig, J., Jurmeister, S., Lopes, C., and Baltazar, F. (2014). A lactate shuttle system between tumour and stromal cells is associated with poor prognosis in prostate cancer. BMC Cancer, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2407-14-352"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.02.013","article-title":"Hallmarks of cancer: The next generation","volume":"144","author":"Hanahan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s10863-007-9085-y","article-title":"Adaptive landscapes and emergent phenotypes: Why do cancers have high glycolysis?","volume":"39","author":"Gillies","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bioenerg. Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2006.05.012","article-title":"Cancer\u2019s sweet tooth","volume":"9","author":"Bui","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8927","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-06-1501","article-title":"Cancer\u2019s molecular sweet tooth and the Warburg effect","volume":"66","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2007.03.021","article-title":"Glycolysis in cancer: A potential target for therapy","volume":"39","author":"Gatenby","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trecan.2017.04.007","article-title":"Exercise and the Hallmarks of Cancer","volume":"3","author":"Provencio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cancer"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20160094","article-title":"The Warburg effect: 80 Years on","volume":"44","author":"Potter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Soc. Trans."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10863-007-9070-5","article-title":"The cancer cell\u2019s \u201cpower plants\u201d as promising therapeutic targets: An overview","volume":"39","author":"Pedersen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bioenerg. Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s10863-007-9094-x","article-title":"Warburg, me and Hexokinase 2, Multiple discoveries of key molecular events underlying one of cancers\u2019 most common phenotypes, the \u201cWarburg Effect\u201d, i.e., elevated glycolysis in the presence of oxygen","volume":"39","author":"Pedersen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bioenerg. Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1097\/GIM.0b013e31818b0d9b","article-title":"Is cancer a disease of abnormal cellular metabolism? New angles on an old idea","volume":"10","author":"DeBerardinis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Genet. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s10863-007-9086-x","article-title":"The Warburg effect and its cancer therapeutic implications","volume":"39","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bioenerg. Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4777","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.onc.1209603","article-title":"Hexokinase II: Cancer\u2019s double-edged sword acting as both facilitator and gatekeeper of malignancy when bound to mitochondria","volume":"25","author":"Mathupala","year":"2006","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2008.11.006","article-title":"Hexokinase-2 bound to mitochondria: Cancer\u2019s stygian link to the \u201cWarburg Effect\u201d and a pivotal target for effective therapy","volume":"19","author":"Mathupala","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1038\/nrclinonc.2017.1","article-title":"Cancer metabolism: A therapeutic perspective","volume":"14","author":"Pestell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.5487\/TR.2016.32.3.177","article-title":"Targeting Cancer Metabolism-Revisiting the Warburg Effects","volume":"32","author":"Tran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6921","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-11-1457","article-title":"Lactate: A metabolic key player in cancer","volume":"71","author":"Hirschhaeuser","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"119","article-title":"Reexamining cancer metabolism: Lactate production for carcinogenesis could be the purpose and explanation of the Warburg Effect","volume":"38","author":"Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-015-3859-9","article-title":"Lactate as an insidious metabolite due to the Warburg effect","volume":"42","author":"Luc","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1002\/path.4218","article-title":"Cancer-generated lactic acid: A regulatory, immunosuppressive metabolite?","volume":"230","author":"Choi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"3835","article-title":"Tumor metabolism: Cancer cells give and take lactate","volume":"118","author":"Semenza","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"3930","article-title":"Targeting lactate-fueled respiration selectively kills hypoxic tumor cells in mice","volume":"118","author":"Sonveaux","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31815fa580","article-title":"A lactatic perspective on metabolism","volume":"40","author":"Gladden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210100517","article-title":"Current aspects of lactate exchange: Lactate\/H+ transport in human skeletal muscle","volume":"86","author":"Juel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"E843","article-title":"Distribution of the lactate\/H+ transporter isoforms MCT1 and MCT4 in human skeletal muscle","volume":"276","author":"Pilegaard","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radonc.2009.06.025","article-title":"Pyruvate into lactate and back: From the Warburg effect to symbiotic energy fuel exchange in cancer cells","volume":"92","author":"Feron","year":"2009","journal-title":"Radiother. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000143034.62913.59","article-title":"Silencing of monocarboxylate transporters via small interfering ribonucleic acid inhibits glycolysis and induces cell death in malignant glioma: An in vitro study","volume":"55","author":"Mathupala","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5812","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-07-6387","article-title":"The pervasive presence of fluctuating oxygenation in tumors","volume":"68","author":"Mace","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"52","article-title":"Lactate Contribution to the Tumor Microenvironment: Mechanisms, Effects on Immune Cells and Therapeutic Relevance","volume":"7","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"E647","article-title":"Effect of induced metabolic acidosis on human skeletal muscle metabolism during exercise","volume":"277","author":"Parolin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"264","article-title":"The Effect of Upper Body Anaerobic Pre-Loading on 2000-M Ergometer-Rowing Performance in College Level Male Rowers","volume":"16","author":"Purge","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6150-5-22","article-title":"Episodic, transient systemic acidosis delays evolution of the malignant phenotype: Possible mechanism for cancer prevention by increased physical activity","volume":"5","author":"Smallbone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol Direct"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1586\/14737140.4.3.449","article-title":"Recently elucidated energy catabolism pathways provide opportunities for novel treatments in hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"4","author":"Geschwind","year":"2004","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38908","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.7676","article-title":"The sweet trap in tumors: Aerobic glycolysis and potential targets for therapy","volume":"7","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.200700470","article-title":"Targeting of cancer energy metabolism","volume":"53","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2008.09.005","article-title":"Nutrient transporters in cancer: Relevance to Warburg hypothesis and beyond","volume":"121","author":"Ganapathy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharm. Ther."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.17.10.1533","article-title":"Glycolytic enzyme inhibitors in cancer treatment","volume":"17","author":"Scatena","year":"2008","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.2174\/1574892811666160415160104","article-title":"Glycolysis Inhibitors for Anticancer Therapy: A Review of Recent Patents","volume":"11","author":"Sheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Recent Pat. Anticancer Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00248","article-title":"Metabolic Hallmarks of Tumor and Immune Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment","volume":"8","author":"Renner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3812","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2006-07-035972","article-title":"Inhibitory effect of tumor cell-derived lactic acid on human T cells","volume":"109","author":"Fischer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haas, R., Smith, J., Rocher-Ros, V., Nadkarni, S., Montero-Melendez, T., D\u2019Acquisto, F., Bland, E.J., Bombardieri, M., Pitzalis, C., and Perretti, M. (2015). Lactate Regulates Metabolic and Pro-inflammatory Circuits in Control of T Cell Migration and Effector Functions. PLoS Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1002202"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2016.05.007","article-title":"Exercise-Dependent Regulation of NK Cells in Cancer Protection","volume":"22","author":"Idorn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40621","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.9746","article-title":"Lactic acidosis switches cancer cells from aerobic glycolysis back to dominant oxidative phosphorylation","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56081","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.9760","article-title":"Hexokinase 2 promotes tumor growth and metastasis by regulating lactate production in pancreatic cancer","volume":"8","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"3909","article-title":"Novel therapy for liver cancer: Direct intra-arterial injection of a potent inhibitor of ATP production","volume":"62","author":"Geschwind","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbabio.2009.03.003","article-title":"Role of mitochondria-associated hexokinase II in cancer cell death induced by 3-bromopyruvate","volume":"1787","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lis, P., Dyl\u0105g, M., Nied\u017awiecka, K., Ko, Y.H., Pedersen, P.L., Goffeau, A., and U\u0142aszewski, S. (2016). The HK2 Dependent \u201cWarburg Effect\u201d and Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation in Cancer: Targets for Effective Therapy with 3-Bromopyruvate. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21121730"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"151","article-title":"Mechanism of antineoplastic activity of lonidamine","volume":"1866","author":"Nath","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1038\/aps.2016.47","article-title":"Anticancer strategies based on the metabolic profile of tumor cells: Therapeutic targeting of the Warburg effect","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"3847","article-title":"The glycolytic phenotype in carcinogenesis and tumor invasion: Insights through mathematical models","volume":"63","author":"Gatenby","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"4364","article-title":"Effects of systemic acidification of mice with Sarcoma 180","volume":"39","author":"Harguindey","year":"1979","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"366","article-title":"The Influence of Various Preparations of Lactic Acid on Transplanted Tumors: I. Action on Sarcoma 39","volume":"16","author":"Parfentjev","year":"1932","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1067\/msy.2002.125713","article-title":"Acidosis plus melphalan induces nitric oxide-mediated tumor regression in an isolated limb perfusion human melanoma xenograft model","volume":"132","author":"Kelley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1159\/000182628","article-title":"Impaired lactate production by skeletal muscle with anaerobic exercise in patients with chronic renal failure. A possible consequence of defective glycolysis in skeletal muscle","volume":"31","author":"Nakao","year":"1982","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0610331","article-title":"Effect of PH on muscle glycolysis during exercise","volume":"61","author":"Sutton","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2015.11.002","article-title":"Lactate\u2019s effect on human neuroblastoma cell bioenergetic fluxes","volume":"99","author":"Lezi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"1926","article-title":"Breast cancer pulmonary metastasis is increased in mice undertaking spontaneous physical training in the running wheel; a call for revising beneficial effects of exercise on cancer progression","volume":"7","author":"Smeda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3302","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.28878","article-title":"Exercise-induced lung cancer regression: Mechanistic findings from a mouse model","volume":"120","author":"Higgins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1097\/HJR.0b013e328304fed4","article-title":"Methodological approach to the first and second lactate threshold in incremental cardiopulmonary exercise testing","volume":"15","author":"Binder","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"209302","article-title":"Special needs to prescribe exercise intensity for scientific studies","volume":"2011","author":"Hofmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cardiol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.8.6.600","article-title":"High-intensity intermittent exercise: Methodological and physiological aspects","volume":"8","author":"Tschakert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"29","article-title":"How to regulate the acute physiological response to \u201caerobic\u201d high-intensity interval exercise","volume":"14","author":"Tschakert","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"80","article-title":"Acute Physiological Responses to Short- and Long-Stage High-Intensity Interval Exercise in Cardiac Rehabilitation: A Pilot Study","volume":"15","author":"Tschakert","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"St\u00fcbinger, G. (2015). Sports and Exercise Training as Therapy in Cancer. The Impact on the 24 Most Common and Deadliest Cancer Diseases Worldwide, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-09505-5"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moser, O., Tschakert, G., Mueller, A., Groeschl, W., Pieber, T.R., Obermayer-Pietsch, B., Koehler, G., and Hofmann, P. (2015). Effects of High-Intensity Interval Exercise versus Moderate Continuous Exercise on Glucose Homeostasis and Hormone Response in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Using Novel Ultra-Long-Acting Insulin. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0136489"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42160","DOI":"10.5812\/asjsm.42160","article-title":"Short-acting insulin reduction strategies for continuous cycle ergometer exercises in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"8","author":"Moser","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-013-0045-x","article-title":"Methods of prescribing relative exercise intensity: Physiological and practical considerations","volume":"43","author":"Mann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2915","DOI":"10.1113\/JP273196","article-title":"Physiological adaptations to interval training and the role of exercise intensity","volume":"595","author":"MacInnis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001134","article-title":"Physical Activity: Absolute Intensity versus Relative-to-Fitness-Level Volumes","volume":"49","author":"Kujala","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.00337","article-title":"Intensity- and Duration-Based Options to Regulate Endurance Training","volume":"8","author":"Hofmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181bdc69d","article-title":"Upper intensity limit for prolonged aerobic exercise in chronic heart failure","volume":"42","author":"Mezzani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"E890","article-title":"Regulation of skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase and PDH during maximal intermittent exercise","volume":"277","author":"Parolin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.1998.sp004138","article-title":"Effects of prior arm exercise on pulmonary gas exchange kinetics during high-intensity leg exercise in humans","volume":"83","author":"Bohnert","year":"1998","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1080\/02640419408732182","article-title":"Effects of previous dynamic arm exercise on power output during repeated maximal sprint cycling","volume":"12","author":"Bogdanis","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"548","article-title":"The use of dynamic nuclear polarization (13)C-pyruvate MRS in cancer","volume":"5","author":"Gutte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.1184","article-title":"Effect of exogenous lactate on rat glioma metabolism","volume":"65","author":"Canioni","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2009.01.041","article-title":"Hypothesis: Using the Warburg effect against cancer by reducing glucose and providing lactate","volume":"73","author":"Nijsten","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsn.5.2.117","article-title":"Chronic oral lactate supplementation does not affect lactate disappearance from blood after exercise","volume":"5","author":"Brouns","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.12042","article-title":"A framework for prescription in exercise-oncology research","volume":"6","author":"Sasso","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s11864-010-0132-2","article-title":"Exercise therapy in the management of solid tumors","volume":"11","author":"Jones","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Oncol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"b3410","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.b3410","article-title":"Effect of a multimodal high intensity exercise intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy: Randomised controlled trial","volume":"339","author":"Adamsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2005.00503.x","article-title":"High-intensity resistance and cardiovascular training improve physical capacity in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy","volume":"16","author":"Quist","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1158\/1940-6207.CAPR-15-0132","article-title":"Physical Activity and Prostate Tumor Vessel Morphology: Data from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study","volume":"8","author":"Gerstenberger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Prev. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4057","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.30859","article-title":"Effects of high-intensity aerobic interval training on cardiovascular disease risk in testicular cancer survivors: A phase 2 randomized controlled trial","volume":"123","author":"Adams","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-015-2749-y","article-title":"Interval versus continuous aerobic exercise training in breast cancer survivors\u2014A pilot RCT","volume":"24","author":"Dolan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Support Care Cancer"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2014-205944","article-title":"High-intensity training following lung cancer surgery: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"70","author":"Edvardsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s11764-015-0490-7","article-title":"The influence of high-intensity compared with moderate-intensity exercise training on cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition in colorectal cancer survivors: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Devin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cancer Surviv."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdt185","article-title":"Efficacy of multimodal exercise-based rehabilitation on physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and patient-reported outcomes in cancer survivors: A randomized, controlled trial","volume":"24","author":"Midtgaard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12693","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.12693","article-title":"A 3-week multimodal intervention involving high-intensity interval training in female cancer survivors: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"4","author":"Schmitt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kampshoff, C.S., Chinapaw, M.J., Brug, J., Twisk, J.W., Schep, G., Nijziel, M.R., van Mechelen, W., and Buffart, L.M. (2015). Randomized controlled trial of the effects of high intensity and low-to-moderate intensity exercise on physical fitness and fatigue in cancer survivors: Results of the Resistance and Endurance exercise after ChemoTherapy (REACT) study. BMC Med., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-015-0513-2"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1188\/15.ONF.42-03AP","article-title":"Higher-Intensity Exercise Results in More Sustainable Improvements for VO2peak for Breast and Prostate Cancer Survivors","volume":"42","author":"Martin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncol. Nurs. Forum."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mijwel, S., Backman, M., Bolam, K.A., Jervaeus, A., Sundberg, C.J., Margolin, S., Browall, M., Rundqvist, H., and Wengstr\u00f6m, Y. (2017). Adding high-intensity interval training to conventional training modalities: Optimizing health-related outcomes during chemotherapy for breast cancer: The OptiTrain randomized controlled trial. Breast Cancer Res. Treat.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-017-4571-3"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.3181\/0704-RM-93","article-title":"Effect of a high-intensity exercise training on the metabolism and function of macrophages and lymphocytes of walker 256 tumor bearing rats","volume":"232","author":"Bacurau","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-008-0849-9","article-title":"Anaerobic exercise reduces tumor growth, cancer cachexia and increases macrophage and lymphocyte response in Walker 256 tumor-bearing rats","volume":"104","author":"Alves","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prp.2012.04.006","article-title":"The influence of physical activity in the progression of experimental lung cancer in mice","volume":"208","author":"Paceli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pathol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.01.017","article-title":"Regular exercise decreases liver tumors development in hepatocyte-specific PTEN-deficient mice independently of steatosis","volume":"62","author":"Piguet","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/08923970802562042","article-title":"Effect of physical exercise on tumor growth regulating factors of tumor microenvironment: Implications in exercise-dependent tumor growth retardation","volume":"31","author":"Verma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2015.08.031","article-title":"Effects of exercise training together with tamoxifen in reducing mammary tumor burden in mice: Possible underlying pathway of miR-21","volume":"765","author":"Khori","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1200\/EDBK_156164","article-title":"Developing High-Quality Cancer Rehabilitation Programs: A Timely Need","volume":"35","author":"Alfano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. Educ. Book"}],"container-title":["Sports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4663\/6\/1\/10\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:53:20Z","timestamp":1760194400000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-4663\/6\/1\/10"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]]},"references-count":121,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3]]}},"alternative-id":["sports6010010"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sports6010010","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-4663"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-4663","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,31]]}}}