{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T17:56:59Z","timestamp":1781027819306,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,6]],"date-time":"2018-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1517875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Catania, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences","award":["Piano Triennale della Ricerca (2017-2020), Giovanna Pappalardo"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Piano Triennale della Ricerca (2017-2020), Giovanna Pappalardo"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A rockfall analysis at one of the most relevant cultural heritage sites of northeastern Sicily (Italy) is presented herein with the aim of assessing the hazard arising from the unstable conditions of the rock cliff of Taormina city, upon which the Saracen Castle is perched on its top. Several rockfalls affected this area in the latest years, representing a serious threat for the safety of inhabitants and tourists. Therefore, the qualitative Evolving Rockfall Hazard Assessment (ERHA) was applied for the hazard zonation, supported by rock mass surveys and Terrestrial Laser Scanner prospecting. Kinematic analysis revealed that the unstable rock failure patterns are represented by planar\/wedge sliding and toppling, while simulation of potential rockfalls allowed studying the impact of future events in terms of trajectory and energy. This is higher at the foot of scarps and in steeper sectors, where the application of ERHA identified a critical zone close to the inhabited center, which is one of the main elements at risk, along with a pedestrian tourist path. Achieved results represent a starting point for the definition of risk management strategies and provide a scientific contribution to the study of hazard and risk arising from rockfall occurrence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su10020417","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,6]],"date-time":"2018-02-06T15:18:05Z","timestamp":1517930285000},"page":"417","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Rockfall Analysis for Preliminary Hazard Assessment of the Cliff of Taormina Saracen Castle (Sicily)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7055-4434","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone","family":"Mineo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Corso Italia 57, 95129 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4979-0459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanna","family":"Pappalardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Corso Italia 57, 95129 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5351-7404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michele","family":"Mangiameli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 54, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Santo","family":"Campolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regione Siciliana\u2014Department of Cultural Heritage and Sicilian Identity, Viale Boccetta 38, 98100 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2134-3136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Mussumeci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 54, 95125 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S1296-2074(00)00158-8","article-title":"Hydrogeological hazard and risk in archaeological sites: Some case studies in Italy","volume":"1","author":"Canuti","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-012-0329-5","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning for rockfall stability analysis in the cultural heritage site of Pitigliano (Italy)","volume":"10","author":"Fanti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.3301\/IJG.2015.31","article-title":"Evaluation of the stability of a rock cliff by means of geophysical and geomechanical surveys in a cultural heritage site (south-eastern Sicily)","volume":"135","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ital. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-002-0035-z","article-title":"Rockfall Hazard Analysis for Hong Kong Based on Rockfall Inventory","volume":"36","author":"Chau","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(03)00045-X","article-title":"Comparison of three GIS-based models for predicting rockfall runout zones at a regional scale","volume":"56","author":"Dorren","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2008.05.043","article-title":"Spatial analysis of rockfall activity, bounce heights and geomorphic changes over the last 50 years\u2014A case study using dendrogeomorphology","volume":"102","author":"Schneuwly","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"209","article-title":"Recommendations for the quantitative analysis of landslide risk","volume":"73","author":"Corominas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-017-6958-1","article-title":"Event tree analysis for rockfall risk assessment along a strategic mountainous transportation route","volume":"76","author":"Mineo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Ball, D., and Watt, J. (2001, January 18\u201324). Risk management and cultural presentation. Proceedings of the ARIADNE Workshop 4, Vulnerability of Cultural Heritage to Hazards and Prevention Measures, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2010). UNESCO Risk Management Training Handbook 2010, UNESCO. BSP-2010\/WS7."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1139\/t93-054","article-title":"The assessment of rockfall hazard at the base of talus slopes","volume":"30","author":"Evans","year":"1993","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-3-407-2003","article-title":"A methodology for physically based rockfall hazard assessment","volume":"3","author":"Crosta","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-8-1441-2008","article-title":"Use of the event tree to assess the risk reduction obtained from rockfall protection devices","volume":"8","author":"Peila","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoffel, M., Bollschweiler, M., Butler, D.R., and Luckman, B.H. (2010). Rockfalls and their hazard. Tree Rings and Natural Hazards, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-8736-2"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-12-1823-2012","article-title":"Rockfall hazard and risk assessment: An example from a high promontory at the historical site of Monemvasia, Greece","volume":"12","author":"Saroglou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"424","article-title":"Rockfall Risk Assessment along Mumbai-Pune Expressway, Maharashtra, India","volume":"3","author":"Ansari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2011.09.008","article-title":"Designing passive rockfall measures based on computer simulation and field experience to enhance highway safety","volume":"48","author":"Pantelidis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Budetta, P., and Nappi, M. (2018, February 01). Comparison between qualitative and quantitative rockfall risk methods for a hazardous road stretch. Advances in Environmental and Agricultural Science. Available online: http:\/\/www.wseas.us\/e-library\/conferences\/2015\/Dubai\/ABIC\/ABIC-01.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2735","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-14-2735-2014","article-title":"Rockfall hazard assessment along a road on the Peloritani Mountains (northeastern Sicily, Italy)","volume":"14","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1989","article-title":"Rockfall Hazard and Risk Assessment: The Promontory of the Pre-Hellenic Village Castelmola Case, North-Eastern Sicily (Italy)","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Lollino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Engineering Geology for Society and Territory"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-014-0551-4","article-title":"Quantitative risk assessment of slope hazards along a section of railway in the Canadian Cordillera\u2014A methodology considering the uncertainty in the results","volume":"13","author":"Macciotta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Pierson, L.A., Davis, S.A., and Van Vickle, R. (1990). Rockfall Hazard Rating System\u2014Implementation Manual, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-012-0137-1","article-title":"Rockfall risk Management assessment: The RO.MA. approach","volume":"62","author":"Mignelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-005-0018-8","article-title":"Landslide risk management in Switzerland","volume":"2","author":"Lateltin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2017.07.013","article-title":"Qualitative evolving rockfall hazard assessment for highwalls","volume":"98","author":"Ferrari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Amari, M. (1880). Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, Loescher."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (1978). Suggested methods for the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock masses. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 15, 319\u2013368."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ulusay, R., and Hudson, J.A. (2007). The complete ISRM suggested methods for rock characterization, testing and monitoring: 1974\u20132006. Suggested Methods Prepared by the Commission on Testing Methods, International Society for Rock Mechanics."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Argeri, G. (1984). Storia di San Piero Patti: Attraverso gli Avvenimenti pi\u00f9 Importanti della Sicilia, Scuola Grafica Salesiana."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"309","article-title":"The abundance of elements and petrovolumetric models of the crust in northeastern Peloritani Mountains (Site 8)","volume":"Volume 32","author":"Sassi","year":"2003","journal-title":"The Abundance of Elements and Petrovolumetric Models in Nine Type Areas from the Crystalline Basements of Italy, with Some Geophysical and Petrophysical Data"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lentini, F., Carbone, S., and Guarnieri, P. (2006). Collisional and postcollisional tectonics of the Apenninic-Maghrebian orogen (southern Italy). Geological Society of America Special Paper 409, Geological Society of America.","DOI":"10.1130\/2006.2409(04)"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1080\/00206814.2011.623022","article-title":"Fault-related rocks: Deciphering the structural-metamorphic evolution of an accretionary wedge in a collisional belt, NE Sicily","volume":"54","author":"Cirrincione","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Geol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Boschi, E., Ferrari, G., Gasperini, P., Guidoboni, E., Smriglio, G., and Valensise, G. (1995). Catalogo dei Forti Terremoti in Italia dal 461 a.C. al 1980, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica. ING-SGA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S1040-6182(02)00091-5","article-title":"Long-term behaviour of the late Quaternary normal faults in the Straits of Messina area(Calabrian arc): Structural and morphological constraints","volume":"101\u2013102","author":"Catalano","year":"2003","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2004.12.011","article-title":"Evidence for sea-level oscillations by the \u201ccharacteristic thickness\u201d of marine deposits from raised terraces of SouthernCalabria (Italy)","volume":"244","author":"Dumas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2008.10.029","article-title":"results of the Taormina 2006 seismic survey: Possible implications for active tectonics in the Messina Straits","volume":"476","author":"Argnani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.04.025","article-title":"Tectonic constraints on a deep-seated rock slide in weathered crystalline rocks","volume":"290","author":"Borrelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-014-0607-8","article-title":"Correlation between P-Wave Velocity and Physical\u2013Mechanical Properties of Intensely Jointed Dolostones, Peloritani Mounts, NE Sicily","volume":"48","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"321","article-title":"Microstructural controls on physical and mechanical properties of dolomite rocks","volume":"41","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rend. Online Soc. Geol. Ital."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.146","article-title":"Investigation on the mechanical attitude of basaltic rocks from Mount Etna through InfraRed Thermography and laboratory tests","volume":"134","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2017.02.020","article-title":"The role of porosity on the engineering geological properties of 1669 lavas from Mount Etna","volume":"221","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.1953.0064","article-title":"Dispersion on a sphere","volume":"217","author":"Fisher","year":"1953","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2015.06.010","article-title":"Integrated geostructural, seismic and infrared thermography surveys for the study of an unstable rock slope in the Peloritani Chain (NE Sicily)","volume":"195","author":"Mineo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2016.01.010","article-title":"InfraRed Thermography proposed for the estimation of the Cooling Rate Index in the remote survey of rock masses","volume":"83","author":"Pappalardo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"212","article-title":"Application of Infrared Thermography for the survey of intensely jointed rock slopes","volume":"35","author":"Mineo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rend. Online Soc. Geol. Ital."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Pappalardo, G., Mineo, S., and Calcaterra, D. (2017). Geomechanical Analysis of Unstable Rock Wedges by Means of Geostructural and Infrared Thermography Surveys. Ital. J. Eng. Geol. Environ., 93\u2013101."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pappalardo, G. (2017). First results of infrared thermography applied to the evaluation of hydraulic conductivity in rock masses. Hydrogeol. J., 1\u201312.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-017-1670-5"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Bieniawski, Z.T. (1989). Engineering Rock Mass Classification, John Wiley & Son."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5194\/se-2-53-2011","article-title":"Open Plot Project: An open-source toolkit for 3-d structural data analysis","volume":"2","author":"Tavani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-9730.2005.00315.x","article-title":"Combined digital photogrammetry and time-of-flight lase scanning for monitoring cliff evolution","volume":"20","author":"Lim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1144\/1470-9236\/05-008","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning for monitoring the processo f hard rock coastal cliff erosion","volume":"38","author":"Rosser","year":"2005","journal-title":"Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20154834","article-title":"Laser Scanning Application for Geostructural analysis of Tuffaceous Coastal Cliffs: The case of Punta Epitaffio, Pozzuoli Bay, Italy","volume":"48","author":"Matano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Gordon, S., Lichti, D., and Stewart, M. (2001, January 19\u201322). Application of high-resolution, ground based laser scanner for deformation measurements. Proceedings of the 10th International FIG Symposium on Deformation Measurements, Orange, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198105191300118","article-title":"Method for Automated Discontinuity Analysis of Rock Slopes with Three-Dimensional Laser Scanning","volume":"1913","author":"Slob","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"80","article-title":"Terrestrial laser scanning of rock slope instabilities","volume":"39","author":"Oppikofer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/17445647.2015.1028237","article-title":"Geostructure of Corogliotuffcliff, Naples (Italy) derived from terrestrial laser scanner data","volume":"12","author":"Matano","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Maps"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Mangiameli, M., Mussumeci, G., and Zito, S. (2016, January 19\u201325). Low cost digital photogrammetry: From the extraction of point clouds by SFM technique to 3D mathematical modeling. Proceedings of the International conference of numerical analysis and applied mathematics, Rhodes, Greece."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2018, February 05). Software \u201cCyclone\u201d. Available online: http:\/\/www.leica-geosystems.it\/it\/Leica-Cyclone_6515.htm."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Geostru (2013). Georock 3D User Manual, Geostru."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Hoek, E. (1987). Rockfall\u2014A Program in Basic for the Analysis of Rockfalls from Slopes, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-014-0503-z","article-title":"Probabilistic estimation of rockfall height and kinetic energy based on a three-dimensional trajectory model and Monte Carlo simulation","volume":"12","author":"Macciotta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Landslides"}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/10\/2\/417\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:53:59Z","timestamp":1760194439000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/10\/2\/417"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,6]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["su10020417"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su10020417","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,6]]}}}