{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T04:25:11Z","timestamp":1780374311105,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]],"date-time":"2020-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aquaculture sector is the fastest growing food production industry, with sea bass and sea bream consisting important exporting goods in the Mediterranean region. This work presents results of a life cycle assessment of Mediterranean sea bass and sea bream, based on primary data collected from a Greek producer. The system boundary included fish feed production and the rearing operation, as well as the packaging and delivery processes, which were neglected in preceding literature studies. The life cycle inventory developed addressed previous data gaps in the production of Mediterranean aquaculture species. Comparison to preceding studies revealed differences on the production inventories and identified methodological choices leading to variability. Packaging and delivery processes were found to contribute approximately 40% towards the global warming score. The production of both sea bass and sea bream was shown to come with high eutrophication impacts occurring from the rearing stage. The feed production was identified as the most environmental impact intensive process throughout the life cycle. Sea bass came with lower environmental impacts per unit live mass, which was reversed when the species were compared on a protein basis. The replicable and transparent model presented here, contributes towards the more accurate quantification of the environmental impacts associated with Mediterranean aquaculture species and supports efforts aiming to promote environmental protection through dietary change.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su12229617","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]],"date-time":"2020-11-18T09:59:47Z","timestamp":1605693587000},"page":"9617","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Mediterranean Sea Bass and Sea Bream"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0948-3443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evangelos","family":"Kallitsis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1981-0866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Korre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK"},{"name":"Energy Futures Lab, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Mousamas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Selonda SA, Markopoulou, 19002 Paiania, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8204-970X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pavlos","family":"Avramidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2010.10.010","article-title":"Where are the best opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the food system (including the food chain)?","volume":"36","author":"Garnett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Policy"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"939","article-title":"Reducing food\u2019s environmental impacts through producers and consumers","volume":"363","author":"Poore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2014.12.008","article-title":"Environmental impact of dietary change: A systematic review","volume":"91","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauzi, R.T., Lavoie, P., Sorelli, L., Heidari, M.D., and Amor, B. (2019). Exploring the current challenges and opportunities of life cycle sustainability assessment. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11030636"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimek, M., Schober, A., Mair, C., Baumgartner, R.J., Stern, T., and F\u00fcllsack, M. (2019). The third wave of LCA as the \u201cdecade of consolidation\u201d. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11123283"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.06.071","article-title":"The role of life cycle assessment in supporting sustainable agri-food systems: A review of the challenges","volume":"140","author":"Notarnicola","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.06.080","article-title":"Environmental impacts of food consumption in Europe","volume":"140","author":"Notarnicola","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"123","article-title":"The Protein Puzzle: The Consumption and Production of Meat, Dairy and Fish in the European Union","volume":"1","author":"Westhoek","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Food Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"EATIP (2012). The Future of European Aquaculture Our Vision: A Strategic Agenda for The Future of European Aquaculture, EATIP."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-018-6846-5","article-title":"Can intensive fish farming for 20 years induce changes in benthic ecosystems on a scale of waterbody? An assessment from Cephalonia bay (Ionian Sea)","volume":"190","author":"Tsikopoulou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2016.09.016","article-title":"Assessment of the use of copper alloy aquaculture nets: Potential impacts on the marine environment and on the farmed fish","volume":"465","author":"Kalantzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2008.03.022","article-title":"Benthic input rates predict seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) fish farm-induced decline","volume":"56","author":"Santiago","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2009.11.018","article-title":"Human influence on seagrass habitat fragmentation in NW Mediterranean Sea","volume":"86","author":"Montefalcone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1372","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-326X(03)00396-5","article-title":"Benthic primary producers\u2014A neglected environmental problem in Mediterranean maricultures?","volume":"46","author":"Holmer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1111\/raq.12280","article-title":"Life cycle assessments of aquaculture systems: A critical review of reported findings with recommendations for policy and system development","volume":"11","author":"Bohnes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-018-1517-x","article-title":"LCA of aquaculture systems: Methodological issues and potential improvements","volume":"24","author":"Bohnes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2011.08.033","article-title":"Environmental impacts of plant-based salmonid diets at feed and farm scales","volume":"321","author":"Boissy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1065\/lca2006.09.275","article-title":"Impact categories for life cycle assessment research of seafood production systems: Review and prospectus","volume":"12","author":"Pelletier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Philis, G., Ziegler, F., Gansel, L.C., Jansen, M.D., Gracey, E.O., and Stene, A. (2019). Comparing life cycle assessment (LCA) of salmonid aquaculture production systems: Status and perspectives. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11092517"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dullah, H., Malek, M.A., and Hanafiah, M.M. (2020). Life Cycle Assessment of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Farming in Kenyir Lake, Terengganu. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12062268"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turolla, E., Castaldelli, G., Fano, E.A., and Tamburini, E. (2020). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Proves that Manila Clam Farming (Ruditapes philippinarum) is a Fully Sustainable Aquaculture Practice and a Carbon Sink. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12135252"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherry, J., and Koester, J. (2020). Life Cycle Assessment of Aquaculture Stewardship Council Certified Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar). Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12156079"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2008.08.008","article-title":"Assessment of the environmental impact of carnivorous finfish production systems using life cycle assessment","volume":"17","author":"Aubin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, B.G., Jim\u00e9nez, C.R., Aguado-Gim\u00e9nez, F., and Garc\u00eda, J.G. (2019). Life cycle assessment of seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) produced in offshore fish farms: Variability and multiple regression analysis. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11133523"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, B.G., Jim\u00e9nez, C.R., Aguado-Gim\u00e9nez, F., and Garc\u00eda, J.G. (2016). Life cycle assessment of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) production in offshore fish farms. Sustainability, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/su8121228"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2017.01.019","article-title":"Environmental assessment of seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and seabream (Sparus aurata) farming from a life cycle perspective: A case study of a Tunisian aquaculture farm","volume":"471","author":"Abdou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-016-1087-8","article-title":"The ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): Overview and methodology","volume":"21","author":"Wernet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Cycle Assess."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.120067","article-title":"Environmental life cycle assessment of the production in China of lithium-ion batteries with nickel-cobalt-manganese cathodes utilising novel electrode chemistries","volume":"254","author":"Kallitsis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vatsanidou, A., Kavalaris, C., Fountas, S., Katsoulas, N., and Gemtos, T. (2020). A Life Cycle Assessment of Biomass Production from Energy Crops in Crop Rotation Using Different Tillage System. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12176978"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bong, P.X.H., Malek, M.A., Mardi, N.H., and Hanafiah, M.M. (2020). Cradle-to-Gate Water-Related Impacts on Production of Traditional Food Products in Malaysia. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12135274"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segerkvist, K.A., Hansson, H., and Sonesson, U. (2020). Research on Environmental, Economic, and Social Sustainability in Dairy Farming: A Systematic Mapping of Current Literature. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12145502"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7148","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b05923","article-title":"Life cycle assessment and release studies for 15 nanosilver-enabled consumer products: Investigating hotspots and patterns of contribution","volume":"51","author":"Pourzahedi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2006.05.016","article-title":"Developing benchmarks for consumer-oriented life cycle assessment-based environmental information on products, services and consumption patterns","volume":"15","author":"Nissinen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"ISO (2006). Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework, International Organization for Standardization. ISO14040:2006."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Van Oers, L. (2015). CML-IA Database, Characterisation and Normalisation Factors for Midpoint Impact Category Indicators, Leiden University."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.07.069","article-title":"Impact of feed raw material to climate and eutrophication impacts of Finnish rainbow trout farming and comparisons on climate impact and eutrophication between farmed and wild fish","volume":"164","author":"Silvenius","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2016.12.014","article-title":"Investigation of morphological predictors of fillet and carcass yield in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) for application in selective breeding","volume":"470","author":"Vandeputte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2015.04.028","article-title":"Estimates of heritabilities and genetic correlations of carcass quality traits in a reared gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) population sourced from three broodstocks along the Spanish coasts","volume":"446","author":"Ramis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Selonda SA (2020, June 04). Selonda SA Products. Available online: http:\/\/selonda.com\/en\/products\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaeng.2011.10.001","article-title":"Aquacultural Engineering Life cycle assessment (LCA) of two rearing techniques of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)","volume":"46","author":"Jerbi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aquac. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.1996.tb00963.x","article-title":"Environmental conditions at sea-cages, and ectoparasites on farmed European sea-bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L.), and gilt-head sea-bream, Sparus aurata L., at two farms in Greece","volume":"27","author":"Papoutsoglou","year":"1996","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2006.06.004","article-title":"Proximate composition and mineral contents in aqua cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), sea bream (Sparus aurata) analyzed by ICP-MS","volume":"102","author":"Erkan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13959","article-title":"Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health","volume":"515","author":"Tilman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"BloombergNEF (2020, September 29). Economics Alone Could Drive Greece to a Future Powered by Renewables. Available online: https:\/\/about.bnef.com\/blog\/economics-alone-could-drive-greece-to-a-future-powered-by-renewables\/."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/12\/22\/9617\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:33:55Z","timestamp":1760178835000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/12\/22\/9617"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["su12229617"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su12229617","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,18]]}}}