{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T09:43:40Z","timestamp":1777110220036,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]],"date-time":"2020-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Greater awareness of the serious human rights abuses associated with the extraction and trade of cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has applied increasing pressure for businesses to move towards more responsible and sustainable mineral sourcing. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities in rural and remote locations may provide heightened opportunities to conceal the alleged human rights violations associated with mining, such as: hazardous working conditions, health impacts, child labour, child trafficking, and debt bondage. In this study, we investigate the feasibility of the Intermittent Small Baseline Subset (ISBAS) interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) method, teamed with high temporal frequency Sentinel-1 imagery, for monitoring ASM activity in rural locations of the \u201cCopperbelt\u201d, the DRC. The results show that the ISBAS descriptive variables (mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum) were significantly different (p-value = \u2264 0.05) between mining and non-mining areas. Additionally, a significant difference was found for the ISBAS descriptive variables mean, standard deviation, and minimum between the different mine types (industrial, surface, and tunnels). As expected, a high level of subsidence (i.e., negative ISBAS pixel value) was a clear indicator of mine activity. Trial activity thresholds were set for the descriptive variables mean (-2.43 mm\/yr) and minimum (-5.36 mm\/yr) to explore an ISBAS approach to active mine identification. The study concluded that the ISBAS method has great potential as a monitoring tool for ASM, with the ability to separate mining and non-mining areas based on surface motion values, and further distinguish the different mine types (industrial, surface, and tunnel). Ground data collection and further development of ISBAS analysis needs to be made to fully understand the value of an ISBAS-based ASM monitoring system. In particular, surrounding the impact of seasonality relative to longer-term trends in ASM activity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su12239834","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]],"date-time":"2020-11-24T20:50:22Z","timestamp":1606251022000},"page":"9834","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Investigating the Potential of Radar Interferometry for Monitoring Rural Artisanal Cobalt Mines in the Democratic Republic of the Congo"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Chloe","family":"Brown","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"Rights Lab, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3335-035X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Daniels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3040-552X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Doreen S.","family":"Boyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"Rights Lab, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Sowter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nottingham Geospatial Institute, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK"},{"name":"Terra Motion Limited, Ingenuity Centre, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6464-3054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giles","family":"Foody","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"Rights Lab, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Siddharth","family":"Kara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rights Lab, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2019, October 25). Financial Times. Dozens Die on Congo Mine Accident. Available online: https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/aea51eb0-98c7-11e9-8cfb-30c211dcd229."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2019, October 25). Financial Times. Congo, Child Labour and Your Electric Car. Available online: https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/c6909812-9ce4-11e9-9c06-a4640c9feebb."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2020, February 16). Financial Times. Glencore in New Cobalt Supply Deal with South Korean Battery Maker. Available online: https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/9413aeaa-16b1-11ea-9ee4-11f260415385."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"The Wall Street Journal (2019, October 27). Despite Cleanup Vows, Smartphones and Electric Cars Still Keep Miners Digging by Hand in Congo. Available online: https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/smartphones-electric-cars-keep-miners-digging-by-hand-in-congo-1536835334."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"CNN (2019, October 25). CNN Discovers Child Labor in Cobalt Trade. Available online: https:\/\/edition.cnn.com\/videos\/world\/2018\/05\/02\/cnn-freedom-project-electric-cars-cobalt-elbagir-pkg.cnn."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Walt, V., and Meyer, S. (2019, October 27). Blood, Sweat, and Batteries. Available online: https:\/\/pulitzercenter.org\/reporting\/blood-sweat-and-batteries."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Amnesty International (2020, January 10). Time to Recharge: Corporate Action and Inaction to Tackle Abuses in the Cobalt Supply Chain. Available online: https:\/\/www.amnesty.org\/en\/documents\/afr62\/7395\/2017\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Church, C., and Crawford, A. (2020, May 02). Green Conflict Minerals: The Fuels of Conflict in the Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy: IISD Report. International Institute for Sustainable Development. Available online: https:\/\/www.iisd.org\/publications\/green-conflict-minerals-fuels-conflict-transition-low-carbon-economy."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"OECD (2020, January 10). Interconnected Supply Chains: A Comprehensive Look at Due Diligence Challenges and Opportunities SOURCING Cobalt and Copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Available online: https:\/\/mneguidelines.oecd.org\/interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-drc.htm."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Bundesanstalt f\u00fcr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (2020, January 10). Mapping of the Artisanal Cobalt Mining Sector in the Provinces of Haut-Katanga and Lualaba in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Available online: https:\/\/www.bgr.bund.de\/EN\/Themen\/Min_rohstoffe\/Downloads\/studie_BGR_kupfer_kobalt_kongo_2019_en.html."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Faber, B., Krause, B., and S\u00e1nchez de la Sierra, R. (2020, April 07). Artisanal Mining, Livelihoods, and Child Labor in the Cobalt Supply Chain of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Centre for Effective Global Action Policy Report. Available online: https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/17m9g4wm."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"O\u2019Driscoll, D. (2020, February 16). Overview of Child Labor in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector in Asia and Africa, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/media\/5a5f34feed915d7dfb57d02f\/209-213-Child-labour-in-mining.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Amnesty International (2019, October 25). \u201cThis is what We Die For\u201d: Human Rights Abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Power the Global Trade in Cobalt. Available online: https:\/\/www.amnesty.org\/en\/documents\/afr62\/3183\/2016\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bannock Consulting (2020, May 05). Vulnerability of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining to Commodity Price Fluctuation, Available online: https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/media\/57a08c9640f0b652dd00140e\/C40PAPER5.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Guardian (2019, August 14). \u201cIs your phone Tainted by the Misery of the 35,000 Children in Congo\u2019s Mines?\u201d. Available online: https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/global-development\/2018\/oct\/12\/phone-misery-children-congo-cobalt-mines-drc."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2020, January 10). Transport & Environment. Cobalt from Congo: How to Source it Better. Comparative Analysis of Existing Supply Chain Certification Schemes and Artisanal Practices. Available online: https:\/\/www.transportenvironment.org\/sites\/te\/files\/publications\/Cobalt%20from%20Congo_how%20to%20source%20it%20better_Final.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Davies, D. (2020, April 07). Restrictions on Sourcing of Cobalt are Changing. Available online: https:\/\/www.pv-magazine.com\/2020\/03\/10\/restrictions-on-sourcing-of-cobalt-are-changing\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2020, May 29). International Rights Advocates (Attorneys for Plaintiffs) v Apple Inc., Alphabet Inc., Dell Inc., Microsoft Inc., and Tesla. United States District Court for the District of Columbia, Case 1:19-cv-03737. Filed 12\/15\/19. Available online: http:\/\/iradvocates.org\/sites\/iradvocates.org\/files\/stamped%20-Complaint.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Financial Times (2020, May 29). China\u2019s Top Cobalt Producer Halts Buying from Congo Miners. Available online: https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/ce9af944-fb70-4576-88d0-dc76821facfd."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Reuters (2020, May 29). Column: Congo\u2019s Move to Control Artisanal Cobalt is Double-Edged. Available online: https:\/\/uk.reuters.com\/article\/uk-cobalt-congo-ahome\/column-congos-move-to-control-artisanal-cobalt-is-double-edged-idUKKBN2011HE."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Freedom United (2020, April 07). The Democratic Republic of Congo\u2019s Bid to Stamp out Child Labor in Cobalt Sector. Available online: https:\/\/www.freedomunited.org\/news\/congos-bid-to-stamp-out-child-labor-in-cobalt-sector\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Estoque, R.C. (2020). A Review of the Sustainability Concept and the State of SDG Monitoring Using Remote Sensing. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12111770"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"102068","article-title":"Knowledge generation using satellite earth observations to support sustainable development goals (SDG): A use case on Land degradation","volume":"88","author":"Giuliani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1080\/10095020.2017.1333230","article-title":"Earth observation in service of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development","volume":"20","author":"Anderson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geo-Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foody, G.M., Ling, F., Boyd, D.S., Li, X., and Wardlaw, J. (2019). Earth observation and machine learning to meet Sustainable Development Goal 8.7: Mapping sites associated with slavery from space. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030266"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, D., Boyd, D.S., Brickell, K., Ives, C.D., Natarajan, N., and Parsons, L. (2019). Modern slavery, environmental degradation and climate change: Fisheries, field, forests and factories. Environ. Plan. Nat. Space.","DOI":"10.1177\/2514848619887156"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.22150\/jms\/URDJ6988","article-title":"Analysing slavery through satellite technology: How remote sensing could revolutionise data collection to help end modern slavery","volume":"4","author":"Jackson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mod. Slavery"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.02.012","article-title":"Slavery from space: Demonstrating the role for satellite remote sensing to inform evidence-based action related to UN SDG number 8","volume":"142","author":"Boyd","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1109\/5.838084","article-title":"Synthetic aperture radar interferometry","volume":"88","author":"Rosen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1029\/97RG03139","article-title":"Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the Earth\u2019s surface","volume":"36","author":"Massonnet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Li, Z., Zhu, J., Yi, H., Hu, J., and Feng, G. (2017). Deriving dynamic subsidence of coal mining areas using InSAR and logistic model. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9020125"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7227","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.519741","article-title":"Deformation mapping in three dimensions for underground mining using InSAR\u2013Southern highland coalfield in New South Wales, Australia","volume":"32","author":"Ng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2009.02.014","article-title":"InSAR analyses of terrain deformation near the Wieliczka Salt Mine, Poland","volume":"106","author":"Perski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"655","article-title":"Mining land subsidence monitoring using Sentinel-1 SAR data. International Archives of the Photogrammetry","volume":"42","author":"Yuan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2202243","article-title":"An underground-mining detection system based on DInSAR","volume":"51","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2013.823673","article-title":"DInSAR estimation of land motion using intermittent coherence with application to the South Derbyshire and Leicestershire coalfields","volume":"4","author":"Sowter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.10.011","article-title":"Persistent scatterer interferometry: A review","volume":"115","author":"Crosetto","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"230","article-title":"Mexico City land subsidence in 2014\u20132015 with Sentinel-1 IW TOPS: Results using the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) technique","volume":"52","author":"Sowter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"37","article-title":"Delineating ground deformation over the Tengiz oil field, Kazakhstan, using the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) DInSAR algorithm","volume":"81","author":"Grebby","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2016.08.014","article-title":"Monitoring land motion due to natural gas extraction: Validation of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) DInSAR algorithm over gas fields of North Holland, the Netherlands","volume":"77","author":"Gee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.12.009","article-title":"Exploitation of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) algorithm with COSMO-SkyMed data for landslide inventory mapping in north-western Sicily, Italy","volume":"280","author":"Novellino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2018JG004953","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JG004953","article-title":"Use of Surface Motion Characteristics Determined by InSAR to Assess Peatland Condition","volume":"125","author":"Alshammari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshammari, L., Large, D.J., Boyd, D.S., Sowter, A., Anderson, R., Andersen, R., and Marsh, S. (2018). Long-term peatland condition assessment via surface motion monitoring using the ISBAS DInSAR technique over the Flow Country, Scotland. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10071103"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2018.07.015","article-title":"Monitoring tropical peat related settlement using isbas insar, kuala lumpur international airport (klia)","volume":"244","author":"Marshall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.05.016","article-title":"The relationship between intermittent coherence and precision of ISBAS InSAR ground motion velocities: ERS-1\/2 case studies in the UK","volume":"202","author":"Cigna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gee, D., Bateson, L., Sowter, A., Grebby, S., Novellino, A., Cigna, F., Marsh, S., Banton, C., and Wyatt, L. (2017). Ground motion in areas of abandoned mining: Application of the intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) to the Northumberland and Durham Coalfield, UK. Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7030085"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"249","article-title":"The application of the Intermittent SBAS (ISBAS) InSAR method to the South Wales Coalfield, UK","volume":"34","author":"Bateson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Novellino, A., Athab, A.D., bin Che Amat, M.A., Syafiudin, M.F., Sowter, A., Marsh, S., Cigna, F., and Bateson, L. (2014). Intermittent SBAS ground motion analysis in low seismicity areas: Case studies in the Lancashire and Staffordshire coalfields, UK. Seismology from Space: Geodetic Observations and Early Warning of Earthquakes, Burlington House."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112021","article-title":"Modelling groundwater rebound in recently abandoned coalfields using DInSAR","volume":"249","author":"Gee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Lu, X., Chen, Z., Zhang, G., Ma, T., Jia, P., and Li, B. (2020). Evaluating the Feasibility of illegal open-pit mining identification using insar coherence. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030367"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi-Fitzpatrick, A. (2020). The Good Drone: How Social Movements Democratize Surveillance. MIT Press.","DOI":"10.21428\/cb6ab371.3d88fd18"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andries, A., Morse, S., Murphy, R.J., Lynch, J., and Woolliams, E.R. (2019). Seeing sustainability from space: Using Earth observation data to populate the UN Sustainable Development Goal indicators. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11185062"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-015-2745-5","article-title":"Implication of plant-soil relationships for conservation and restoration of copper-cobalt ecosystems","volume":"403","author":"Faucon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1477-8947.2009.01218.x","article-title":"The miombo woodlands at the crossroads: Potential threats, sustainable livelihoods, policy gaps and challenges","volume":"33","author":"Syampungani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Resour. Forum"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2019.02.020","article-title":"National geohazards mapping in Europe: Interferometric analysis of the Netherlands","volume":"256","author":"Gee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183","article-title":"The shuttle radar topography mission","volume":"45","author":"Farr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.18.000338","article-title":"Two-dimensional phase unwrapping with use of statistical models for cost functions in nonlinear optimization","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"JOSA A"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lesiv, M., See, L., Laso Bayas, J.C., Sturn, T., Schepaschenko, D., Karner, M., Moorthy, I., McCallum, I., and Fritz, S. (2018). Characterizing the spatial and temporal availability of very high resolution satellite imagery in google earth and microsoft bing maps as a source of reference data. Land, 7.","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-2018-13"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"IISD SDG Knowledge Hub (2020, May 02). Global Electric Vehicles Sales Surge, but Emissions from Transport Rise Faster. Available online: http:\/\/sdg.iisd.org\/news\/global-electric-vehicles-sales-surge-but-emissions-from-transport-rise-faster\/."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Ferretti, A., Colesanti, C., Perissin, D., Prati, C., and Rocca, F. (2003). Evaluating the effect of the observation time on the distribution of SAR permanent scatterers. Proc. Fringe., 1\u20135."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-096809-4.10030-9","article-title":"Production of cobalt from the copper\u2013cobalt ores of the central african copperbelt","volume":"1","author":"Crundwell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Extr. Metall. Nickel Cobalt Platin. Group Met."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"915","article-title":"The precarious political economy of cobalt: Balancing prosperity, poverty, and brutality in artisanal and industrial mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"6","author":"Sovacool","year":"2019","journal-title":"Extr. Ind. Soc."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Lindberg, S., and Anderson, U. (2020, February 16). Blood Batteries, So High is the Price for the Technology of the Future. Available online: https:\/\/special.aftonbladet.se\/blodsbatterier\/."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.2478\/s13382-011-0012-4","article-title":"Identification of hazards in the workplaces of artisanal mining in Katanga","volume":"24","author":"Elenge","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Tsurukawa, N., Prakash, S., and Manhart, A. (2020, June 13). Social Impacts of Artisanal Cobalt Mining in Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo. \u00d6ko-Institut eV, Freiburg. Available online: https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/8b56\/d22b7f68856322fc47121a429e7c72a73cc1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A. (2014, January 16\u201318). A golden age for spaceborne SAR systems. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Microwaves, Radar and Wireless Communications, Gdansk, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/MIKON.2014.6899903"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1038\/534320a","article-title":"Map the interactions between Sustainable Development Goals","volume":"534","author":"Nilsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2020.104743","article-title":"Identifying supply risks by mapping the cobalt supply chain","volume":"156","author":"Kleijn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Enough Project (2020, May 02). Powering Down Corruption: Tackling Transparency and Human Rights Risks from Congo\u2019s Cobalt Mines to Global Supply Chains. Available online: https:\/\/enoughproject.org\/reports\/powering-down-corruption."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/12\/23\/9834\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:36:53Z","timestamp":1760179013000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/12\/23\/9834"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["su12239834"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su12239834","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,24]]}}}