{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T19:21:14Z","timestamp":1780946474429,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,21]],"date-time":"2021-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010897","name":"Newton Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PhD Scholarship"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PhD Scholarship"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010897","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sustainability"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper reviews the Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) remediation potential and operational costs of twelve existing AMD remediation methods against Class 0 and Class I AMD geochemical characteristics as defined in the Modified Hill Framework. Of the twelve remediation options reviewed in this study, eleven required additional process steps either for further treatment to achieve the discharge limits or for the safe management of hazardous waste by-products. Chemical desalination showed the greatest potential with high quality treated water and operational costs between USD 0.25 and USD 0.75 per cubic meter treated. The management of the toxic metal and sulphide by-products remains a key challenge that requires further research for sustainable mine water remediation. Further development of end-to-end methods suitable for Class 0 AMD with economical operational costs is recommended in order to effectively address the ongoing environmental challenges posed by AMD globally.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/su13158118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,22]],"date-time":"2021-07-22T22:37:14Z","timestamp":1626993434000},"page":"8118","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Review of Remediation Solutions for Acid Mine Drainage Using the Modified Hill Framework"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sandisiwe Khanyisa","family":"Thisani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannebsurg 2006, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2579-5626","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daramy Vandi Von","family":"Kallon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannebsurg 2006, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2699-052X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick","family":"Byrne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L2 2QP, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1016\/S0883-2927(03)00079-9","article-title":"Metal geochemistry in a mine-polluted estuarine system in Spain","volume":"18","author":"Braungardt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2011.574103","article-title":"The impairment of river systems by metal mine contamination: A review Including remediation options","volume":"42","author":"Byrne","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2018.02.037","article-title":"Synthesis and application of hematite nanoparticles for acid mine drainage treatment","volume":"6","author":"Msagati","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"99","article-title":"Pit lakes as an end user of mining: A review","volume":"5","author":"Soni","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Min. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"de Beer, M., Maree, J.P., Wilsenach, J., Motaung, S., Bologo, L., and Radebe, V. (2010, January 4\u20139). Acid Mine Water Reclamation using the ABC Process. Proceedings of the International Mine Water Association Symposium, Sydney, NS, Canada."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2004.09.002","article-title":"Acid Mine Drainage Remediation Options: A Review","volume":"338","author":"Johnson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.4314\/wsa.v39i5.1","article-title":"Long-term sustainability in the management of acid mine drainage wastewaters\u2014development of the Rhodes BioSURE Process","volume":"39","author":"Rose","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thisani, S.K., Kalllon, D.V.V., and Byrne, P. (2020). Geochemical Classification of Global Mine Water Drainage. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su122410244"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006735226263","article-title":"Geochemical Characteristics of the Acid Mine Drainage in the Water System in the Vicinity of the Dogye Coal Mine in Korea","volume":"22","author":"Chon","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1007\/s10230-008-0056-2","article-title":"Geochemical characterisation of seepage and drainage water quality from two sulphide mine tailings impoundments: Acid mine drainage verus neutral mine drainage","volume":"28","author":"Heikkinen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mine Water Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pat-Espadas, A.M., Portales, R.L., Amabilis-Sosa, L.E., Gomez, G., and Vidal, G. (2018). Review of Constructed Wetlands for Acid Mine Drainage Treatment. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10111685"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3627","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.65.8.3627-3632.1999","article-title":"Seasonal Variations in the Microbial Populations and Environmental Conditions in an Extreme Acid Mine Drainage Environment","volume":"65","author":"Edwards","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2008.12.025","article-title":"Hydrochemical characteristics and seasonal influence on the pollution by acid mine drainage in the Odiel river Basin (SW Spain)","volume":"24","author":"Sarmiento","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2011.04.034","article-title":"Characterisation of acid mine drainage in a high rainfall mountain environment, New Zealand","volume":"409","author":"Davies","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2004.11.004","article-title":"Hydrochemistry, mineralogy and sulfur isotope geochemistry of acid mine drainage at the Mt. Morgan mine environment, Queensland, Australia","volume":"20","author":"Edraki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2018.01.004","article-title":"Alternative neutralisation materials for acid mine drainage treatment","volume":"22","author":"Gurkiran","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Water Process. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2002). International Institute for Environment and Development, Breaking New Ground\u2014Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development. IIED and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) Publication, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London and Sterling."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Opitz, J., and Timms, W. (2016, January 11\u201315). Mine water discharge quality\u2014A review of classification frameworks. Proceedings of the International Mine Water Association, IMWA, Leipzig, Germany."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s40726-015-0011-3","article-title":"Remediation of Acid Mine Drainage-Impacted Water","volume":"1","author":"RoyChowdhury","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Pollut. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-3449(99)00010-5","article-title":"A Continuous Process for the Biological Treatment of Heavy Metal Contaminated Acid Mine Water","volume":"27","author":"Rose","year":"1999","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"109","article-title":"Recovery of metals from acid mine drainage","volume":"28","author":"MacIngova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105457","article-title":"Removal of heavy metals using a novel sulfidogenic AMD treatment system with sulfur reduction: Configuration, performance, critical parameters and economic analysis","volume":"136","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Taylor, J., Pape, S., and Murphy, N. (2005, January 29\u201331). A summary of passive and active treatment technologies for acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD). Proceedings of the Fifth Australian Workshop on Acid Drainage, Frementle, Australia."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.03.082","article-title":"Acid mine drainage: Prevention, treatment option, and resource recovery: A review","volume":"151","author":"Kefani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2017.08.008","article-title":"Environmentally sustainable acid mine drainage remediation: Research developments with a focus on waste\/by-products","volume":"126","author":"Moodley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.11.053","article-title":"A review of recent strategies for acid mine drainage prevention and mine tailings recycling","volume":"219","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s10230-016-0417-1","article-title":"Review of passive systems for acid mine drainage treatment","volume":"36","author":"Skousen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mine Water Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1007\/s10230-003-0012-0","article-title":"Long-term Performance of Passive Acid Mine Drainage Systems","volume":"22","author":"Ziemkiewicz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mine Water Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Passive Treatment Systems for Acid Mine Drainage","volume":"19","author":"Fork","year":"2003","journal-title":"U.S. Bur. Land Manag. Pap."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Novhe, O., Yibas, B., Coetzee, H., Atanasova, M., Netshitungulwana, R., Modiba, M., and Mashalane, T. (2016, January 11\u201315). Long-Term Remediation of Acid Mine Drainage from Abandoned Coal Mine Using Integrated (Anaerobic and Aerobic) Passive Treatment System, in South Africa: A Pilot Study. Proceedings of the International Mine Water Association, Leipzig, Germany."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Expert Team of the Inter Ministerial Committee (2010). Mine Water Management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields with Special Emphasis on Acid Mine Drainage-Report to the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Acid Mine Drainage, Council of Geoscience."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Younger, P.L., Banwart, S.A., and Hedin, R.S. (2002). Mine Water: Hydrology, Pollution, Remediation, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-0610-1"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.01.085","article-title":"A critical review on remediation. reuse, and resource recovery from acid mine drainage","volume":"247","author":"Naidu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Aub\u00e9, B., and Lee, D. (2015, January 21). The High Density Sludge (HDS) Process and Sulphate Control. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage and IMWA Conference 2015\u2013Agreeing on Solutions for More Sustainable Mine Water Management, Santiago, Chile."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"36","article-title":"Overview of acid mine drainage treatment with chemicals","volume":"26","author":"Skousen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Green Lands"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1700","article-title":"Acid mine water treatment using the high density sludge technology","volume":"15","author":"Dinu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Prot. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2007.07.005","article-title":"Inorganic pigments made from the recycling of coalmine drainage treatment sludge","volume":"88","author":"Marcello","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2005.11.015","article-title":"The chemistry of conventional and alternative treatment systems for the neutralization of acid mine drainage","volume":"366","author":"Kalin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"525","article-title":"Biological sulphate reduction with primary sewage sludge in an upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) reactor\u2014Part 1: Feasibility study","volume":"35","author":"Pionapen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2014.04.024","article-title":"Pollution control and metal resource recovery for acid mine drainage","volume":"147","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1007\/s10311-019-00894-w","article-title":"Remediation of acid mine drainage","volume":"17","author":"Vazquez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s10532-018-9863-8","article-title":"Long-term performance of a UASB reactor treating acid mine drainage: Effects of sulfate loading, hydraulic retention time, and COD\/SO4 ratio","volume":"30","author":"Cunha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biodegredation"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Aub\u00e9, B., and Zinck, J.M. (1999). Comparison of AMD Treatment Processes and Their Impact on Sludge Characteristics, Noranda Income Technology Centre. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sukati, B.H., de Jager, P.C., Annandale, J.G., and Tanner, P.D. (2018). The hazardous status of high density sludge from mine drainage neutralization. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10114185"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Kuyucak, N., Lindvall, M., Serrano, J.A.R., and Oliva, A.F. (1999). Implementation of a High Density Sludge \u201cHDS\u201d Treatment Process at the Boliden Apirsa Mine Site, International Mine Water Association."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"735","article-title":"Water Filtration Innovation to Optimize Recovery and Lower TCO","volume":"1","author":"Stewart","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Int. Mine Water Assoc."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Maree, J.P., Strydom, W.F., Adlem, C.J., de Beer, M., van Tonder, G.J., and van Dijk, B.J. (2004). Neutralization of Acid Mine Water and Sludge Disposal, Water Research Commission. WRC Report No 1057\/1\/04."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"245","article-title":"Neutralisation Treatment of AMD at Affordable Cost","volume":"39","author":"Maree","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.4314\/wsa.v38i1.4","article-title":"Application of magnesium hydroxide and barium hydroxide for the removal of metals and sulphate from mine water","volume":"38","author":"Bologo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Swanepoel, H. (2011). Sulphate Removal from Industrial Effluents Through Barium Sulphate Precipitation, North-West University."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1007\/s10230-017-0451-7","article-title":"Using Calcium Carbonate\/Hydroxide and Barium Carbonate to Remove Sulphate from Mine Water","volume":"36","author":"Akinwekomi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mine Water Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2018.11.254","article-title":"Barium Sulphate Deposits","volume":"157","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Patroni, J., Mackay, E.J., Vazquez, O., Boak, L.S., Singleton, M., and Ross, G. (2008, January 28\u201329). The Cost and Value of Field, Laboratory, and Simulation Data for Validating Scale Inhibitor Treatment Models. Proceedings of the SPE International Oilfield Scale Conference, Aberdeen, UK."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"131","article-title":"Acid mine drainage control and treatment","volume":"41","author":"Skousen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Reclam. Drastically Disturb. Lands"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2016.06.070","article-title":"The Effect of Rehabilitation Measures on Ecological Infrustructure in Response to Acid Mine Drainage from Coal Mining","volume":"95","author":"Oberholster","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2005.08.006","article-title":"Heavy metal removal mechanism of acid mine drainage in wetlands: A critical review","volume":"19","author":"Sheoran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12029","DOI":"10.1021\/es4025904","article-title":"Natural Wetlands are efficient at provide long-term metal remediation of freshwater systems polluted by acid mine drainage","volume":"47","author":"Dean","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1002\/elsc.200720216","article-title":"Review of sulfate reduction based bioprocesses for acid mine drainage treatment and metals recovery","volume":"7","author":"Kaksonen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eng. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023219300286","article-title":"Pitfalls of passive mine water treatment","volume":"1","author":"Johnson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio\/Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Neda, A., Whittington-Jones, K., and Rose, P.D. (2007). Salinity, Sanitation and Sustainability Vol. 4: The Rhodes BioSURE Process, Water Research Commission."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2011.08.003","article-title":"Long term remediation of highly polluted acid mine drainage: A sustainable approach to restore the environmental quality of the Odiel river basin","volume":"159","author":"Caraballo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2008.10.018","article-title":"A field study of constructed wetlands for preventing and treating acid mine drainage","volume":"35","author":"Nyquist","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00478175","article-title":"Alkalinity generation by Fe(III) reduction versus sulfate reduction in wetlands constructed for acid mine drainage treatment","volume":"69","author":"Ville","year":"1993","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Zipper, C., Skousen, J., and Jage, C. (2011). Passive Treatment of Acid-Mine-Drainage, Virginia Cooperative Extension."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Fripp, J., Ziemkiewicz, P.F., and Charkavorki, H. (2000). Acid Mine Drainage Treatment, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center. EMRRP Technical Notes Collection (ERDC TN-EMRRP-SR-14)."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2545","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2012.694328","article-title":"Acid Mine Drainage Treatment in Fluidized Bed Bioreactors by Sulfate Reducing Bacteria: A Critical Review","volume":"43","author":"Papirio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Brooks, C.S. (1991). Metal Recovery Recovery from Industrial Industrial Wastes, Lewis Publishers."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3709","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1354(03)00262-8","article-title":"Control of the sulfide (S2-) concentration for optimal zinc removal by sulfide precipitation in a continuously stirred tank reactor","volume":"37","author":"Veeken","year":"2003","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2009.03.010","article-title":"Reverse osmosis desalination: Water sources, technology, and today\u2019s challenges","volume":"43","author":"Greenlee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2014.07.021","article-title":"Acid mine drainage: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"2","author":"Simate","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Bhagwan, J. (2012). Turning Acid Mine Drainage Water into Drinking Water: The eMalahleni Water Recycling Project, Environmental Protection Agency."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Hutton, B., Kahan, I., Naidu, T., and Gunther, P. (2009, January 19\u201323). Operating and Maintenance Experience at the Emalahleni Water Reclamation Plant. Proceedings of the International Mine Water Conference, Pretoria, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2016.07.003","article-title":"Gold acid mine drainage treatment by membrane separation processes: An evaluation of the main operational conditions","volume":"170","author":"Aguiar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Karakatasanis, E., and Cogho, V.E. (2010, January 6). Drinking water from mine water using the HiPRO Process-Optimum coal mine water reclamation plant. Proceedings of the Mine Water and Innovative Thinking, Proceedings of the IMWA Symposium, Sydney, NS, Canada."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Perry, R.H., and Green, D.W. (1997). Perry\u2019s Chemical Engineers\u2019 Handbook, McGraw Hil. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2006.12.009","article-title":"State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination","volume":"216","author":"Fritzmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2014.11.006","article-title":"Synthesis and evaluation of phosphate-free antiscalants to control CaSO4\u00b72H2O scale formation in reverse osmosis desalination plants","volume":"357","author":"Ali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"17","article-title":"Reduce Reverse Osmosis Membrane Fouling with Good CIP Procedures","volume":"21","author":"McDonald","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ultrapure Water"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blankert, B., Vrouwenvelder, S., Witkamp, G., and Ghaffour, N. (2020). Minimum Net Driving Temperature Concept for Membrane Distillation. Membranes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes10050100"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-7388(96)00236-0","article-title":"Membrane distillation","volume":"124","author":"Lawson","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.11.153","article-title":"Acid mine drainage treatment by integrated submerged membrane distillationesorption system","volume":"218","author":"Ryu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2015.04.008","article-title":"Evaluation of air gap membrane distillation process running under sub-atmospheric conditions: Experimental and simulation studies","volume":"489","author":"Alsaadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2011.08.027","article-title":"Membrane distillation: A comprehensive review","volume":"287","author":"Alkhudhiri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1039\/C8EE00291F","article-title":"Membrane distillation at the water-energy nexus: Limits, opportunities, and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Deshmukh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2013.03.033","article-title":"Economic analysis of desalination technologies in the context of carbon pricing, and opportunities for membrane distillation","volume":"323","author":"Kesieme","year":"2013","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Lui, C., and Martin, A. (2005). Membrane Distillation Application for Water Purification in Thermal Cogeneration\u2014A Pre Study, VARMEFORSK Service AB."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"G\u00fcnther, P., and Mey, W. (2021, July 15). Selection of Mine Water Treatment Technologies for the eMalahleni (Witbank) Water Reclamation Project. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/228406602_Selection_of_mine_water_treatment_technologies_for_the_eMalahleni_Witbank_Water_Reclamation_Project."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2005.05.015","article-title":"Anaerobic and complementary treatment of domestic seweage in regions with hot-climates\u2014A review","volume":"97","author":"Aiyuk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2006.10.039","article-title":"Treatment of beer sugar wastewater by UAFB bioprocess","volume":"98","author":"Farhadian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Greben-Wiersema, H.A. (2007). Biowaste as Energy Source for Biological Sulphate Removal. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pretoria]."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Visser, A. (1995). The Anaerobic Treatment of Sulphate Containing Wastewater. [Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University]."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Opollo, S.O. (2016). Integrated Anaerobic Digestion and UV Photocatalytic Treatment of Industrial Wastewater in Fluidized Bed Reactors. [Ph.D. Thesis, Vaal University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.51.3.580-587.1986","article-title":"Sulphate reduction relative to methane production in high rate anaerobic digestion: Microbiological aspects","volume":"51","author":"Isa","year":"1986","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akinpelu, E.A., Ntwampe, K.O., Fosso-Kankeu, E., and Waanders, F. (2020). Comparative analysis of brewing wastewater and lactate as carbon sources for microbial community treating acid mine drainage in anaerobic MBBR systems. Environ. Technol.","DOI":"10.1080\/09593330.2020.1771431"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thisani, S.K., Daramy, D.V.V., and Byrne, P. (2021). A Fixed Bed Pervious Concrete Anaerobic Bioreactor for Biological Sulphate Remediation of Acid Mine Drainage Using Simple Organic Matter. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13126529"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-2509(00)00392-4","article-title":"Treatment by sulfate-reducing bacteria of Chessy acid-mine drainage and metals recovery","volume":"56","author":"Foucher","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2015.11.041","article-title":"Kinetics and microbial ecology of batch sulfidogenic bioreactors for co-treatment of municipal wastewater and acid mine drainage","volume":"305","author":"Deng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2008.11.029","article-title":"Sulfate and metal removal in bioreactors treating acid mine drainage dominated with iron and aluminum","volume":"43","author":"McCauley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2015.08.002","article-title":"Sulfate reducing bioreactor dependence on organic substrates for remediation of coal-generated acid mine drainage: Field experiments","volume":"63","author":"Lefticariu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3724","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1354(98)00144-4","article-title":"Growth of sulphate-reducing bacteria under acidic conditions in an upflow anaerobic bioreactor as a treament system for acid mine drainage","volume":"32","author":"Elliot","year":"1998","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calabrese, E.J., Kostecki, P.T., and Dragun, J. (2005). Design Challenges for Large Scale Sulfate Reducing Bioreactors. Contaminated Soils, Sediments and Water, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/b100570"},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Tilson, J.W. (2013). Removal of Dissolved Metals from Stormwater Runoff Using Pervious Concrete. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington State University]."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9109","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-014-2903-y","article-title":"Filter materials for metal removal from mine drainage","volume":"21","author":"Westholm","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2016.10.027","article-title":"Pervious concrete reactive barrier for removal of heavy metals from acid mine drainage\u2014Column study","volume":"353","author":"Shabalala","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2013.12.062","article-title":"The use of zero-valent iron for groundwater remediation and wastewater treatment: A review","volume":"267","author":"Fu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Mafanya, L. (2020). Flow Model for Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage Using Pervious Concrete. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, University of Johannesburg]."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2014.03.112","article-title":"An overview of permeable reactive barriers for in situ sustainable groundwater remediation","volume":"111","author":"Malina","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2008.05.075","article-title":"Permeable reactive barriers: A sustainable technology for cleaning contaminated groundwater in developing countries","volume":"248","author":"Phillips","year":"2009","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Carey, M.A., Fretwell, B.A., Mosley, N.G., and Smith, J.W. (2002). Guidence on the Use of Permeable Reactive Bariers for Remediating Contaminated Groundwater."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"AFCEE (2008). Technical Protocol for Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation Using Permeable Mulch Biowalls and Bioreactors, Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4083","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-60780-2","article-title":"Kraft pulp mill dregs and grits as permeable reactive barrier for permeable reactive barrier for acid mine drainage","volume":"10","author":"Farage","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001402","article-title":"Prediction of Longevities of ZVI and Pervious Concrete Reactive Barriers Using the Transport Simulation Model","volume":"144","author":"Ekolu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Shabalala, A.N., Ekolu, S.O., and Diop, S. (2014). Permeable reactive barriers for acid mine drainage treatment: A review. Const. Mater. Struct., 1416\u20131426."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-7722(00)00122-4","article-title":"Treatment of inorganic contaminants using permeable reactive barriers","volume":"45","author":"Blowes","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Contam. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2011.04.082","article-title":"In-situ remediation of acid mine drainage using a permeable reactive barrier in Aznalc\u00f3llar (Sw Spain)","volume":"191","author":"Gibert","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.17159\/wsa\/2019.v45.i4.7545","article-title":"Quality of water recovered by treating acid mine drainage using pervious concrete adsorbent","volume":"45","author":"Shabalala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1680\/wama.13.00035","article-title":"A concrete reactive barrier for acid mine drainage treatment","volume":"Volume 167","author":"Ekolu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Water Management"},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"Mafanya, L., Kallon, D.V.V., and Simelane, S.P. (2019). Chemical Analysis of AMD Properties Based on Factorial Method. OIC, 399\u2013403."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-009-0022-8","article-title":"Selection of permeable reactive barrier materials for treating acid mine groundwater in sulphate soil terrains based on laboratory column tests","volume":"59","author":"Golab","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Mafanya, L., Kallon, D.V.V., and Simelane, S.P. (October, January 30). Flow Properties Upon Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage Using Pervious Concrete. Proceedings of the SAIIE NeXXXt 21, Gqeberha, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1972","DOI":"10.1021\/es9703335","article-title":"Selection of Reactive Mixtures for use in Permeable Reactive Walls for Treatment of Mine Drainage","volume":"32","author":"Waybrant","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"Zaal, S.M. (2016). Passive Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage through Permeable Concrete and Organic Filtration, University of Witwatersrand."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.06.046","article-title":"Performance of two differently designed permeable reactive barriers with sulfate and zinc solutions","volume":"642","author":"Perez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"Kallin, M., and Smith, M.P. (1992, January 30). The development of floating Typha mats. Proceedings of the International Specialist Conference on Wetland Systems in Water Pollution Control, \u201cWetlands Downunder\u201d, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15911","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-6801-3","article-title":"Hydroponic root mats for wastewater treatment\u2014a review","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1089\/109287503770736159","article-title":"Predicting the precipitation of mineral phases in permeable reactive barriers","volume":"20","author":"Liang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Department Of Water Affairs, South Africa (2013). Feasibility Study for a Long-Term Solution to Address the Acid Mine Drainage Associated with the East, Central and West Rand Underground Mining Basins: Treatment Technology Options."}],"container-title":["Sustainability"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/13\/15\/8118\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:32:33Z","timestamp":1760164353000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2071-1050\/13\/15\/8118"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,21]]},"references-count":127,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["su13158118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su13158118","relation":{},"ISSN":["2071-1050"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2071-1050","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,21]]}}}