{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:55:52Z","timestamp":1792806952655,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645574400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001665","name":"Agence Nationale de la Recherche","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ANR-15-CE34-004-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-15-CE34-004-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"PACA Region","award":["2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017"]}]},{"name":"National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment","award":["Recurrent funding"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Recurrent funding"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/003vg9w96","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016988","name":"Avignon University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Bourse Perdiguier"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Bourse Perdiguier"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016988","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004113","name":"Lebanese University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2364"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2364"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004113","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To explain losses of bees that could occur after the winter season, we studied the effects of the insecticide imidacloprid, the herbicide glyphosate and the fungicide difenoconazole, alone and in binary and ternary mixtures, on winter honey bees orally exposed to food containing these pesticides at concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 \u00b5g\/L. Attention was focused on bee survival, food consumption and oxidative stress. The effects on oxidative stress were assessed by determining the activity of enzymes involved in antioxidant defenses (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) in the head, abdomen and midgut; oxidative damage reflected by both lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation was also evaluated. In general, no significant effect on food consumption was observed. Pesticide mixtures were more toxic than individual substances, and the highest mortalities were induced at intermediate doses of 0.1 and 1 \u00b5g\/L. The toxicity was not always linked to the exposure level and the number of substances in the mixtures. Mixtures did not systematically induce synergistic effects, as antagonism, subadditivity and additivity were also observed. The tested pesticides, alone and in mixtures, triggered important, systemic oxidative stress that could largely explain pesticide toxicity to honey bees.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10030104","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,24]],"date-time":"2022-02-24T00:53:26Z","timestamp":1645664006000},"page":"104","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["Toxicity of the Pesticides Imidacloprid, Difenoconazole and Glyphosate Alone and in Binary and Ternary Mixtures to Winter Honey Bees: Effects on Survival and Antioxidative Defenses"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5799-3440","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisa","family":"Pal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3806-618X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanine","family":"Almasri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8383-0365","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurianne","family":"Paris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes, G\u00e9nome et Environnement, Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9188-0394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Diogon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes, G\u00e9nome et Environnement, Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maryline","family":"Pioz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marianne","family":"Cousin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5134-6288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"D\u00e9borah","family":"Sen\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylvie","family":"Tchamitchian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daiana","family":"Tavares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric","family":"Delbac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes, G\u00e9nome et Environnement, Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2975-5568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicolas","family":"Blot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS, Laboratoire Microorganismes, G\u00e9nome et Environnement, Universit\u00e9 Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Luc","family":"Brunet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1798-9962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luc","family":"Belzunces","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INRAE, UR 406 A&E, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale, F-84000 Avignon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2006.3721","article-title":"Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops","volume":"274","author":"Klein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. 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