{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T20:11:38Z","timestamp":1790194298332,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,24]],"date-time":"2022-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653350400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The European Petroleum Refiners Association","award":["201700116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201700116"]}]},{"name":"The European Petroleum Refiners Association","award":["SU: 20210548"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210548"]}]},{"name":"The European Petroleum Refiners Association","award":["SU: 20210312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210312"]}]},{"name":"The European Petroleum Refiners Association","award":["KG: 20200776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KG: 20200776"]}]},{"name":"The European Petroleum Refiners Association","award":["LP: 20210211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LP: 20210211"]}]},{"name":"The European Petroleum Refiners Association","award":["2018-03233"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-03233"]}]},{"name":"Swedish Heart Lung Foundation","award":["201700116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201700116"]}]},{"name":"Swedish Heart Lung Foundation","award":["SU: 20210548"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210548"]}]},{"name":"Swedish Heart Lung Foundation","award":["SU: 20210312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210312"]}]},{"name":"Swedish Heart Lung Foundation","award":["KG: 20200776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KG: 20200776"]}]},{"name":"Swedish Heart Lung Foundation","award":["LP: 20210211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LP: 20210211"]}]},{"name":"Swedish Heart Lung Foundation","award":["2018-03233"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-03233"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201700116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201700116"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SU: 20210548"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210548"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SU: 20210312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210312"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["KG: 20200776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KG: 20200776"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LP: 20210211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LP: 20210211"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004359","name":"Swedish Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018-03233"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-03233"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the Swedish Fund for Research without Animal Experiments","award":["201700116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201700116"]}]},{"name":"the Swedish Fund for Research without Animal Experiments","award":["SU: 20210548"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210548"]}]},{"name":"the Swedish Fund for Research without Animal Experiments","award":["SU: 20210312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SU: 20210312"]}]},{"name":"the Swedish Fund for Research without Animal Experiments","award":["KG: 20200776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KG: 20200776"]}]},{"name":"the Swedish Fund for Research without Animal Experiments","award":["LP: 20210211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LP: 20210211"]}]},{"name":"the Swedish Fund for Research without Animal Experiments","award":["2018-03233"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-03233"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is mounting evidence that shows the association between chronic exposure to air pollutants (particulate matter and gaseous) and onset of various respiratory impairments. However, the corresponding toxicological mechanisms of mixed exposure are poorly understood. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to establish a repeated exposure setting for evaluating the pulmonary toxicological effects of diesel exhaust particles (DEP), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) as representative criterial air pollutants. Single, combined (DEP with NO2 and SO2), and repeated exposures were performed using physiologically relevant human bronchial mucosa models developed at the air\u2013liquid interface (bro-ALI). The bro-ALI models were generated using human primary bronchial epithelial cells (3\u20134 donors; 2 replicates per donor). The exposure regime included the following: 1. DEP (12.5 \u00b5g\/cm2; 3 min\/day, 3 days); 2. low gaseous (NO2: 0.1 ppm + SO2: 0.2 ppm); (30 min\/day, 3 days); 3. high gaseous (NO2: 0.2 ppm + SO2: 0.4 ppm) (30 min\/day, 3 days); and 4. single combined (DEP + low gaseous for 1 day). The markers for pro-inflammatory (IL8, IL6, NFKB, TNF), oxidative stress (HMOX1, GSTA1, SOD3,) and tissue injury\/repair (MMP9, TIMP1) responses were assessed at transcriptional and\/ or secreted protein levels following exposure. The corresponding sham-exposed samples under identical conditions served as the control. A non-parametric statistical analysis was performed and p &lt; 0.05 was considered as significant. Repeated exposure to DEP and single combined (DEP + low gaseous) exposure showed significant alteration in the pro-inflammatory, oxidative stress and tissue injury responses compared to repeated exposures to gaseous air pollutants. The study demonstrates that it is feasible to predict the long-term effects of air pollutants using the above explained exposure system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10060277","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T05:12:27Z","timestamp":1653455547000},"page":"277","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Establishment of Repeated In Vitro Exposure System for Evaluating Pulmonary Toxicity of Representative Criteria Air Pollutants Using Advanced Bronchial Mucosa Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Swapna","family":"Upadhyay","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashesh","family":"Chakraborty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tania A.","family":"Thimraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marialuisa","family":"Baldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0121-281X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Steneholm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nynas AB, P.O. Box 10 700, 121 29 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8531-8154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Koustav","family":"Ganguly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Per","family":"Gerde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Ernstg\u00e5rd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Palmberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Integrative Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2021, September 22). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines Aim to Save Millions of Lives from Air. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/22-09-2021-new-who-global-air-quality-guidelines-aim-to-save-millions-of-lives-from-air-pollution."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"European Economic Area (EEA) (2021, November 15). Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Europe. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/publications\/air-quality-in-europe-2021\/health-impacts-of-air-pollution."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500059","article-title":"Estimating environmental exposures to sulfur dioxide from multiple industrial sources for a case\u2013control study","volume":"9","author":"Rogers","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"\u00c5str\u00f6m, S., K\u00e4llmark, L., Yaramenka, K., and Grennfelt, P. (2021). European and Central Asian Actions on Air Quality: A Regional Summary of Emission Trends, Policies, and Programs to Reduce Air Pollution, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute Ltd.. Report C598."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, X., Xu, G., Li, L., Shen, Y., He, T., Liang, Y., Yang, Z., Zhou, W.W., and Xu, J. (2016). Knowledge and perceptions of air pollution in Ningbo, China. BMC Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-3788-0"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6754","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27049-2","article-title":"A national cohort study (2000\u20132018) of long-term air pollution exposure and incident dementia in older adults in the United States","volume":"12","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30505-6","article-title":"Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015","volume":"389","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-021-01812-x","article-title":"The effects of traffic-related air pollutants on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the community-based general population","volume":"22","author":"Hsu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32643-0","article-title":"Respiratory and cardiovascular responses to walking down a traffic-polluted road compared with walking in a traffic-free area in participants aged 60 years and older with chronic lung or heart disease and age-matched healthy controls: A randomised, crossover study","volume":"391","author":"Sinharay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21181","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.1c03633","article-title":"Impact of High-Voltage Discharge After-Treatment Technology on Diesel Engine Particulate Matter Composition and Gaseous Emissions","volume":"6","author":"Wongchang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-8977-10-61","article-title":"Diesel exhaust particulate increases the size and complexity of lesions in atherosclerotic mice","volume":"10","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1114397","article-title":"Toxic potential of materials at the nano level","volume":"311","author":"Nel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.4046\/trd.2019.0025","article-title":"Particulate-Matter Related Respiratory Diseases","volume":"83","author":"Kyung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tuberc. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8153","article-title":"Associations between Health Effects and Particulate Matter and Black Carbon in Subjects with Respiratory Disease","volume":"113","author":"Jansen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.2019.06.0288","article-title":"Seasonal Variations in PM2.5-induced Oxidative Stress and Up-regulation of Pro-inflammatory Mediators","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2020.04.031","article-title":"Oxidative stress in air pollution research","volume":"151","author":"Mudway","year":"2020","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118336","article-title":"Association between gaseous air pollutants and biomarkers of systemic inflammation: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"292","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1097\/MCP.0000000000000248","article-title":"Pulmonary Health Effects of Air Pollution","volume":"22","author":"Kurt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfy053","article-title":"Air-Liquid Interface: Relevant In Vitro Models for Investigating Air Pollutant-Induced Pulmonary Toxicity","volume":"164","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.impact.2017.08.002","article-title":"Corrigendum to \u201cIn vitro approaches to assess the hazard of nanomaterials\u201d","volume":"8","author":"Drasler","year":"2018","journal-title":"NanoImpact"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2013-0479OC","article-title":"Efficient Bioactive Delivery of Aerosolized Drugs to Human Pulmonary Epithelial Cells Cultured in Air\u2013Liquid Interface Conditions","volume":"51","author":"Lenz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-018-0256-2","article-title":"Multi-cellular human bronchial models exposed to diesel exhaust particles: Assessment of inflammation, oxidative stress and macrophage polarization","volume":"15","author":"Ji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1080\/17435390.2019.1655600","article-title":"Exposure of normal and chronic bronchitis-like mucosa models to aerosolized carbon nanoparticles: Comparison of pro-inflammatory oxidative stress and tissue injury\/repair responses","volume":"13","author":"Ji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2019.104617","article-title":"Evaluation of diacetyl mediated pulmonary effects in physiologically relevant air-liquid interface models of human primary bronchial epithelial cells","volume":"61","author":"Thimraj","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2017.09.016","article-title":"Inflammatory effects of acrolein, crotonaldehyde and hexanal vapors on human primary bronchial epithelial cells cultured at air-liquid interface","volume":"46","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Vitr."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2017, August 25). Air Quality in Europe\u20142017 Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.eea.europa.eu\/publications\/air-quality-in-europe-2017."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2015). ENVIS centre CPB on control of pollution Water, Air & Noise. Air Pollution in Delhi An Analysis, ENVIS Centre CPCB."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5139","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-014-4024-z","article-title":"Impact of fine particulate fluctuation and other variables on Beijing\u2019s air quality index","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, J., Hedelin, A., Malml\u00f6f, M., Kessler, V., Seisenbaeva, G., Gerde, P., and Palmberg, L. (2017). Development of Combining of Human Bronchial Mucosa Models with XposeALI\u00ae for Exposure of Air Pollution Nanoparticles. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170428"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20460","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-77452-w","article-title":"Addressing the challenges of E-cigarette safety profiling by assessment of pulmonary toxicological response in bronchial and alveolar mucosa models","volume":"10","author":"Ganguly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15371","article-title":"The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale","volume":"525","author":"Lelieveld","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3389\/frsc.2021.705131","article-title":"Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Human Health in Indian Cities: A Brief Review","volume":"3","author":"Kaur","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sustain. Cities"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106424","article-title":"Concentration-dependent health effects of air pollution in controlled human exposures","volume":"150","author":"Orach","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000128587.30041.C8","article-title":"Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"109","author":"Brook","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-014-0036-6","article-title":"Ultrafine carbon particle mediated cardiovascular impairment of aged spontaneously hypertensive rats","volume":"11","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2014","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279371","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/279371","article-title":"Recent advances in particulate matter and nanoparticle toxicology: A review of the in vivo and in vitro studies","volume":"2013","author":"Nemmar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00014","article-title":"Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review","volume":"8","author":"Manisalidis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-020-01514-w","article-title":"Long-term exposure to PM10 and NO2 in relation to lung function and imaging phenotypes in a COPD cohort","volume":"21","author":"Kwon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"E8","article-title":"Air particulate matter and cardiovascular disease: The epidemiological, biomedical and clinical evidence","volume":"8","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.113.5.1312","article-title":"Respiratory Changes due to Long-term Exposure to Urban Levels of Air Pollution: A Histopathologic Study in Humans","volume":"113","author":"Souza","year":"1998","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-016-2566-8","article-title":"Airway remodeling in asthma: What really matters","volume":"367","author":"Fehrenbach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2006.03.002","article-title":"Responses of well-differentiated nasal epithelial cells exposed to particles: Role of the epithelium in airway inflammation","volume":"215","author":"Auger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2018.10.002","article-title":"Amphiregulin potentiates airway inflammation and mucus hypersecretion induced by urban particulate matter via the EGFR-PI3K\u03b1-AKT\/ERK pathway","volume":"53","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Signal."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1006\/taap.1998.8567","article-title":"Particulate Matter Initiates Inflammatory Cytokine Release by Activation of Capsaicin and Acid Receptors in a Human Bronchial Epithelial Cell Line","volume":"154","author":"Veronesi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13259","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92626-w","article-title":"Interactions of nasal epithelium with macrophages and dendritic cells variously alter urban PM-induced inflammation in healthy, asthma and COPD","volume":"11","author":"Proboszcz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619523","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/619523","article-title":"Contribution of lung macrophages to the inflammatory responses induced by exposure to air pollutants","volume":"2013","author":"Hiraiwa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487074","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/487074","article-title":"Oxidative Stress and Air Pollution Exposure","volume":"2011","author":"Lodovici","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2013.01.026","article-title":"Pro-inflammatory effects and oxidative stress in lung macrophages and epithelial cells induced by ambient particulate matter","volume":"183","author":"Michael","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-018-0240-x","article-title":"PM2.5-induced oxidative stress increases intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in lung epithelial cells through the IL-6\/AKT\/STAT3\/NF-\u03baB-dependent pathway","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabral-Pacheco, G.A., Garza-Veloz, I., Castruita-De la Rosa, C., Ramirez-Acuna, J.M., Perez-Romero, B.A., Guerrero-Rodriguez, J.F., Martinez-Avila, N., and Martinez-Fierro, M.L. (2020). The Roles of Matrix Metalloproteinases and Their Inhibitors in Human Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21249739"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Bakand, S. (2006). Development of In Vitro Methods for Toxicity Assessment of Workplace Air Contaminants. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South Wales]."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1996.9936009","article-title":"Effect of Sulfur Dioxide on Cytokine Production of Human Alveolar Macrophages in Vitro","volume":"51","author":"Knorst","year":"1996","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Health Int. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2009.05.022","article-title":"The association between fine particulate air pollution and hospital emergency room visits for cardiovascular diseases in Beijing, China","volume":"407","author":"Guo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-016-0178-9","article-title":"Combined exposure of diesel exhaust particles and respirable Soufri\u00e8re Hills volcanic ash causes a (pro-)inflammatory response in an in vitro multicellular epithelial tissue barrier model","volume":"13","author":"Horwell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8030629","article-title":"Combined Toxic Exposures and Human Health: Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect","volume":"8","author":"Silins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2011.11.040","article-title":"Effects of the interaction of TiO2 nanoparticles with bisphenol A on their physicochemical properties and in vitro toxicity","volume":"199","author":"Zheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.impact.2021.100344","article-title":"Combined effects of nanoparticles and other environmental contaminants on human health\u2014An issue often overlooked","volume":"23","author":"Forest","year":"2021","journal-title":"NanoImpact"}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/10\/6\/277\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:17:41Z","timestamp":1760138261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/10\/6\/277"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,24]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics10060277"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics10060277","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,24]]}}}