{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T22:03:03Z","timestamp":1790287383817,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,6]],"date-time":"2022-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659744000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The extensive use of antibiotics in livestock farming poses increased concerns for human health as residues of these substances are present in edible tissues. The aim of this study was the determination of the levels of four groups of antibiotics (sulfonamides\u2014SAs, tetracyclines\u2014TCs, streptomycines\u2014STr and quinolones\u2014QNLs) in meat samples (muscles, livers and kidneys from beef, chicken and pork) and the estimation of the dietary exposure to antibiotics from meat consumption and the potential hazard for human health. Fifty-four samples of raw meat were randomly collected in 2018 from the Cretan market, Greece and analyzed both with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (LC\u2013MS). According to the results derived from the ELISA method, only 2% of the meat samples were free from antibiotics, 2% were detected with 4 antibiotics and the great majority of the samples (87%) were detected with 2 to 3 antibiotics. SAs presented the highest detection frequencies for all samples whereas TCs were not detected in any bovine sample. The highest median concentration was detected for STr in bovine muscles (182.10 \u03bcg\/kg) followed by QNLs (93.36 \u03bcg\/kg) in pork kidneys whereas the chicken samples had higher burdens of QNLs compared to the other meat samples. LC\u2013MS analysis showed that oxytetracycline (OTC) was the most common antibiotic in all samples. The highest median concentration of all antibiotics was detected for doxycycline (DOX) (181.73 \u03bcg\/kg in pork kidney) followed by OTC in bovine liver (74.46 \u03bcg\/kg). Risk characterization was applied for each of the two methods; The hazard quotients (HQ) did not exceed 0.059 for the ELISA method and 0.113 for the LC\u2013MS method for any group of antibiotics, whereas the total hazard indexes (HI) were 0.078 and 0.021, respectively. The results showed the presence of different groups of antibiotics in meat from the Cretan market and that the health risk to antibiotics is low. A risk assessment analysis conducted for meat consumption and corrected for the aggregated exposure revealed no risk for the consumers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10080456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,10]],"date-time":"2022-08-10T09:47:06Z","timestamp":1660124826000},"page":"456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Antibiotics in Raw Meat Samples: Estimation of Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5746-0126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athina","family":"Stavroulaki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Crete and Foundation for Research and Technology\u2014Hellas (FORTH-IESL), 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manolis N.","family":"Tzatzarakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Karzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioanna","family":"Katsikantami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7178-5413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisavet","family":"Renieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Vakonaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Avgenaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6507-8691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanasios","family":"Alegakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miriana","family":"Stan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 200349 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3033-6165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthaios","family":"Kavvalakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Apostolos K.","family":"Rizos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Crete and Foundation for Research and Technology\u2014Hellas (FORTH-IESL), 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3824-2462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aristidis","family":"Tsatsakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medicine School, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"440","article-title":"Antibiotic use in poultry; A driving force for organic poultry production","volume":"35","author":"Moscoso","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Prot. 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