{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,5]],"date-time":"2026-07-05T15:20:46Z","timestamp":1783264846932,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":173,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Institutional fellowship and the Government of Gujarat for the award of research fellowship","award":["KCG\/SHODH\/2022-23\/202101586"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCG\/SHODH\/2022-23\/202101586"]}]},{"name":"Institutional fellowship and the Government of Gujarat for the award of research fellowship","award":["R&D\/SRP-2022-004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R&D\/SRP-2022-004"]}]},{"name":"Office of Dean, Research and Development, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University","award":["KCG\/SHODH\/2022-23\/202101586"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KCG\/SHODH\/2022-23\/202101586"]}]},{"name":"Office of Dean, Research and Development, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University","award":["R&D\/SRP-2022-004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R&D\/SRP-2022-004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The current water crisis necessitates the development of new materials for wastewater treatment. A variety of nanomaterials are continuously being investigated for their potential as adsorbents for environmental remediation. Researchers intend to develop a low-cost, simple, and sustainable material that can cater to removal of pollutants. Biochar derived from biowaste is a potential candidate for the existing problem of water pollution. The review focuses on the various aspects of biochar, such as its sources, preparation methods, mechanism, applications for wastewater treatment, and its regeneration. Compared with other adsorbents, biochar is considered as an environmentally friendly, sustainable, and cost-effective substitute for waste management, climate protection, soil improvement, wastewater treatment, etc. The special properties of biochar such as porosity, surface area, surface charge, and functional groups can be easily modified by various chemical methods, resulting in improved adsorption properties. Therefore, in view of the increasing environmental pollution and the problems encountered by researchers in treating pollutants, biochar is of great importance. This review also highlights the challenges and prospective areas that can be explored and studied in more detail in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11020117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T04:22:16Z","timestamp":1674620536000},"page":"117","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":160,"title":["Biochar as Sustainable Alternative and Green Adsorbent for the Remediation of Noxious Pollutants: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Stuti","family":"Jha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Energy Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Knowledge Corridor, Raisan, Gandhinagar 382426, Gujarat, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0545-9342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rama","family":"Gaur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Energy Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Knowledge Corridor, Raisan, Gandhinagar 382426, Gujarat, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5930-4138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Syed","family":"Shahabuddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Energy Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Knowledge Corridor, Raisan, Gandhinagar 382426, Gujarat, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2157-0075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inderjeet","family":"Tyagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for DNA Taxonomy, Molecular Systematics Division, Zoological Survey of India, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Kolkata 700053, West Bengal, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3273","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-020-03060-w","article-title":"Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater","volume":"18","author":"Ambaye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Jenkins, S.H. (1981). Water Pollution Research and Development, Pergamon."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Basile, A., Cassano, A., and Rastogi, N.K. (2020). Current Trends and Future Developments on (Bio-) Membranes, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2005.11.007","article-title":"Study of catalyzed ozonation for advanced treatment of pulp and paper mill effluents","volume":"40","author":"Fontanier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-011-0948-y","article-title":"Biochar reduces the bioavailability and phytotoxicity of heavy metals","volume":"348","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8765","article-title":"Nanoparticles with photoinduced precipitation for the extraction of pollutants from water and soil","volume":"6","author":"Brandl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1039\/D2MH01151D","article-title":"A bioinspired antibacterial and photothermal membrane for stable and durable clean water remediation","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2496","DOI":"10.1039\/D2MH00768A","article-title":"Robust and multifunctional natural polyphenolic composites for water remediation","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Horiz."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jha, S., Gaur, R., Shahabuddin, S., Ahmad, I., and Sridewi, N. (2022). Kinetic and Isothermal Investigations on the Use of Low Cost Coconut Fiber-Polyaniline Composites for the Removal of Chromium from Wastewater. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14204264"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crini, G., and Lichtfouse, E. (2018). Green Adsorbents for Pollutant Removal: Fundamentals and Design, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-92111-2"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"167","article-title":"Adsorption technique for the removal of organic pollutants from water and wastewater","volume":"7","author":"Rashed","year":"2013","journal-title":"Org. Pollut. Monit. Risk Treat."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Thomas, S., Tresa Sunny, A., and Velayudhan, P. (2020). Colloidal Metal Oxide Nanoparticles, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darban, Z., Shahabuddin, S., Gaur, R., Ahmad, I., and Sridewi, N. (2022). Hydrogel-Based Adsorbent Material for the Effective Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater: A Comprehensive Review. Gels, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8050263"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sodha, V., Shahabuddin, S., Gaur, R., Ahmad, I., Bandyopadhyay, R., and Sridewi, N. (2022). Comprehensive Review on Zeolite-Based Nanocomposites for Treatment of Effluents from Wastewater. Nanomaterials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12183199"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1139\/b04-123","article-title":"Mycorrhizal fungi as drivers of ecosystem processes in heathland and boreal forest biomes","volume":"82","author":"Read","year":"2004","journal-title":"Can. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2019.103379","article-title":"Preparation, characterization and application of surface modified biochar from date seed for improved lead, copper, and nickel removal from aqueous solutions","volume":"7","author":"Mahdi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.116448","article-title":"Adsorption of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater by modified biochar: A review","volume":"273","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142673","article-title":"Preparation of magnetic biochar and its application in catalytic degradation of organic pollutants: A review","volume":"765","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.120243","article-title":"A complete review on biochar: Production, property, multifaceted applications, interaction mechanism and computational approach","volume":"292","author":"Jeyasubramanian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715398","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/715398","article-title":"Biochar preparation, characterization, and adsorptive capacity and its effect on bioavailability of contaminants: An overview","volume":"2014","author":"Nartey","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2012.09.015","article-title":"Flow and yield stress behaviour of ultrafine Mallee biochar slurry fuels: The effect of particle size distribution and additives","volume":"104","author":"Shivaram","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.10.150","article-title":"Effect of pyrolysis temperature and heating rate on biochar obtained from pyrolysis of safflower seed press cake","volume":"128","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Ahmed, A.A., and Mohammed, H.H.A. (2020). Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture3040715","article-title":"Practicality of biochar additions to enhance soil and crop productivity","volume":"3","author":"Filiberto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agriculture"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Prasad, M., Ranjan, R., Ali, A., Goyal, D., Yadav, A., Singh, T.B., Shrivastav, P., and Dantu, P.K. (2020). Contaminants in Agriculture, Springer."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.011","article-title":"Application of agro-waste for sustainable construction materials: A review","volume":"38","author":"Madurwar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"15","article-title":"Acid rain and its ecological consequences","volume":"29","author":"Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Environ. Biol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhuvaneshwari, S., Hettiarachchi, H., and Meegoda, J. (2019). Crop residue burning in India: Policy challenges and potential solutions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16050832"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Hosam, M.S. (2020). Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management, IntechOpen."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1007\/s10098-018-1656-6","article-title":"Exploring the untapped potential of solar pretreatment for deconstruction of recalcitrant Kraft lignin in fungal biotransformation","volume":"21","author":"Patil","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clean Technol. Environ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75936-3","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of rice husk biochar via hydrothermal carbonization for wastewater treatment and biofuel production","volume":"10","author":"Hossain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s42773-020-00043-5","article-title":"Biochars produced from coconut palm biomass residues can aid regenerative agriculture by improving soil properties and plant yield in humid tropics","volume":"2","author":"Gopal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochar"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57987-8","article-title":"Characterization and carbon mineralization of biochars produced from different animal manures and plant residues","volume":"10","author":"Sarfaraz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Bhaskar, T., Pandey, A., Mohan, S.V., Lee, D.J., and Khanal, S.K. (2018). Waste Biorefinery, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Htun, K. (2009). Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study \u0399\u0399 Working Paper Series, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Working Paper No. APFSOS II\/WP\/2009\/07."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2015.05.043","article-title":"Pretreatment of forest residues of Douglas fir by wet explosion for enhanced enzymatic saccharification","volume":"192","author":"Biswas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2013.06.028","article-title":"The effects of woodchip biochar application on crop yield, carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions from soils planted with rice or leaf beet","volume":"44","author":"Lai","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-017-9884-2","article-title":"Quality of biochars made from Eucalyptus tree bark and corncob using a pilot-scale retort kiln","volume":"9","author":"Kanouo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Waste Biomass Valorization"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2017.11.082","article-title":"Aquatic weeds as the next generation feedstock for sustainable bioenergy production","volume":"251","author":"Kaur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2015.08.061","article-title":"The role of pretreatment in improving the enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials","volume":"199","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-020-3121-5","article-title":"Recent trends in biochar production methods and its application as a soil health conditioner: A review","volume":"2","author":"Gabhane","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, L., Zhang, Y., Zhou, Y., Zhang, X., Ji, L., Song, W., Zhang, H., and Liu, J. (2019). Effective adsorption of diesel oil by crab-shell-derived biochar nanomaterials. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12020236"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/srep09665","article-title":"Biochar from commercially cultivated seaweed for soil amelioration","volume":"5","author":"Roberts","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1816","article-title":"Adsorption of copper ions from water onto fish scales derived biochar: Isothermal perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Achieng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mater. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.1039\/c1ee01022k","article-title":"Production of furfural and carboxylic acids from waste aqueous hemicellulose solutions from the pulp and paper and cellulosic ethanol industries","volume":"4","author":"Xing","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2014.03.105","article-title":"Carbon dioxide capture using biochar produced from sugarcane bagasse and hickory wood","volume":"249","author":"Creamer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.125734","article-title":"High-efficiency removal of dyes from wastewater by fully recycling litchi peel biochar","volume":"246","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2018.10.123","article-title":"Production of biochars from textile fibres through torrefaction and their characterisation","volume":"166","year":"2019","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.09.122","article-title":"Waste-art-paper biochar as an effective sorbent for recovery of aqueous Pb (II) into value-added PbO nanoparticles","volume":"308","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.btre.2020.e00570","article-title":"A critical review on the biochar production techniques, characterization, stability and applications for circular bioeconomy","volume":"28","author":"Yaashikaa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2019.01.024","article-title":"Food waste to biochars through pyrolysis: A review","volume":"144","author":"Elkhalifa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.04.128","article-title":"Assessing the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the molecular properties and copper sorption capacity of a halophyte biochar","volume":"251","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2014.12.058","article-title":"Application of biochar for the removal of pollutants from aqueous solutions","volume":"125","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Daful, A., and Chandraratne, M. (2018). Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s11157-020-09523-3","article-title":"Biochar physicochemical properties: Pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects","volume":"19","author":"Tomczyk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio\/Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2012.10.017","article-title":"Biochar production from waste rubber-wood-sawdust and its potential use in C sequestration: Chemical and physical characterization","volume":"44","author":"Ghani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.21967\/jbb.v4i1.180","article-title":"Progress in preparation and application of modified biochar for improving heavy metal ion removal from wastewater","volume":"4","author":"Godwin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Bioresour. Bioprod."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2018.09.035","article-title":"Characteristics of biochar and bio-oil produced from wood pellets pyrolysis using a bench scale fixed bed, microwave reactor","volume":"119","author":"Nhuchhen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.serj.2016.04.012","article-title":"A review on microwave pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass","volume":"26","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sustain. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"78","article-title":"Microwave assisted pyrolysis of biomass: A review","volume":"4","author":"Ingole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Technol. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2018.08.067","article-title":"Production of bio-oil from agricultural waste by using a continuous fast microwave pyrolysis system","volume":"269","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.4155\/bfs.10.81","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass residuals: A comparative review of the chemistry, processes and applications of wet and dry pyrolysis","volume":"2","author":"Libra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biofuels"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2017.03.031","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization, torrefaction and slow pyrolysis of Miscanthus giganteus","volume":"140","author":"Wilk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2009.01.085","article-title":"Removal of lead from water using biochars prepared from hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass","volume":"167","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-013-1745-6","article-title":"Degradation kinetics of biochar from pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization in temperate soils","volume":"372","author":"Bai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2014.06.024","article-title":"Combustion kinetics and particle fragmentation of raw and torrified pine shells and olive stones in a drop tube furnace","volume":"35","author":"Costa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-020-00632-1","article-title":"Fuel properties of biochar from torrefaction of ground coffee residue: Effect of process temperature, time, and sweeping gas","volume":"10","author":"Pathomrotsakun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomass Convers. Biorefinery"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2012.04.002","article-title":"Upgrading of woody biomass by torrefaction under pressure","volume":"96","author":"Wannapeera","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e03531","article-title":"Biomass torrefaction as an emerging technology to aid in energy production","volume":"6","author":"Mamvura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2013.08.026","article-title":"Chemical evaluation of chars produced by thermochemical conversion (gasification, pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization) of agro-industrial biomass on a commercial scale","volume":"59","author":"Wiedner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsoil.2021.104005","article-title":"Influence of biochar and biochar-based fertilizer on yield, quality of tea and microbial community in an acid tea orchard soil","volume":"166","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Soil Ecol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1002\/jpln.201200487","article-title":"Utilization of biochar impregnated with anaerobically digested slurry as slow-release fertilizer","volume":"177","author":"Oh","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1","article-title":"The basics of biochar: A natural soil amendment","volume":"30","author":"Hunt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soil Crop Manag."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"50","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: A review","volume":"40","author":"Krylovaa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012075","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1051\/1\/012075","article-title":"A review on the comparison between slow pyrolysis and fast pyrolysis on the quality of lignocellulosic and lignin-based biochar","volume":"1051","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"87","article-title":"A Case Study of Bio-char Production from Biomass using Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis and its Utilization","volume":"5","author":"Afzal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Work."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2021.111873","article-title":"Hydrothermal carbonization process: Fundamentals, main parameter characteristics and possible applications including an effective method of SARS-CoV-2 mitigation in sewage sludge. A review","volume":"154","author":"Wilk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bastidas-Oyanedel, J.R., and Schmidt, J.E. (2019). Biorefinery: Integrated Sustainable Processes for Biomass Conversion to Biomaterials, Biofuels, and Fertilizers, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-10961-5"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.21273\/HORTTECH03481-16","article-title":"Chemical properties of biochar materials manufactured from agricultural products common to the Southeast United States","volume":"27","author":"Evans","year":"2017","journal-title":"Horttechnology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2017.12.054","article-title":"Properties of biochar","volume":"217","author":"Kathrin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2011.0070","article-title":"Characterization of slow pyrolysis biochars: Effects of feedstocks and pyrolysis temperature on biochar properties","volume":"41","author":"Kloss","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Shackley, S., Sohi, S., Ibarrola, R., Hammond, J., Ma\u0161ek, O., Brownsort, P., Cross, A., Prendergast-Miller, M., and Haszeldine, S. (2013). Geoengineering Responses to Climate Change, Springer."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2011.06.078","article-title":"Adsorption of copper and zinc by biochars produced from pyrolysis of hardwood and corn straw in aqueous solution","volume":"102","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2013.08.082","article-title":"Pb (II) and Cr (VI) sorption by biochars pyrolyzed from the municipal wastewater sludge under different heating conditions","volume":"147","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Crabtree, R.H. (2009). The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5550","DOI":"10.1021\/es104401h","article-title":"Metal interactions at the biochar-water interface: Energetics and structure-sorption relationships elucidated by flow adsorption microcalorimetry","volume":"45","author":"Harvey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2015.1096880","article-title":"A review of biochar as a low-cost adsorbent for aqueous heavy metal removal","volume":"46","author":"Inyang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Krauskoph, K. (1967). Introduction to Geochemistry, McGraw-Hill, Inc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2015.05.036","article-title":"Biochar application to a contaminated soil reduces the availability and plant uptake of zinc, lead and cadmium","volume":"159","author":"Puga","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2010.02.052","article-title":"Properties of dairy-manure-derived biochar pertinent to its potential use in remediation","volume":"101","author":"Cao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-35534-w","article-title":"Sorption of ammonium and nitrate to biochars is electrostatic and pH-dependent","volume":"8","author":"Fidel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2011.04.008","article-title":"Characteristics and mechanisms of hexavalent chromium removal by biochar from sugar beet tailing","volume":"190","author":"Dong","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cocis.2019.12.001","article-title":"Role of molecular architecture in the modulation of hydrophobic interactions","volume":"47","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2018.11.050","article-title":"Removal of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances using super-fine powder activated carbon and ceramic membrane filtration","volume":"366","author":"Murray","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2018.01.010","article-title":"Cost effective and practically viable oil spillage mitigation: Comprehensive study with biochar","volume":"128","author":"Kandanelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7757","DOI":"10.1021\/es061307m","article-title":"Effect of natural organic substances on the surface and adsorptive properties of environmental black carbon (char): Attenuation of surface activity by humic and fulvic acids","volume":"40","author":"Pignatello","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.137299","article-title":"Carbon nanotube supported sludge biochar as an efficient adsorbent for low concentrations of sulfamethoxazole removal","volume":"718","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2019.121370","article-title":"Mechanism of negative surface charge formation on biochar and its effect on the fixation of soil Cd","volume":"384","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122255","article-title":"Innovative spherical biochar for pharmaceutical removal from water: Insight into adsorption mechanism","volume":"394","author":"Tran","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2020.123834","article-title":"Nickel aluminum layered double oxides modified magnetic biochar from waste corncob for efficient removal of acridine orange","volume":"315","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2019.01.034","article-title":"Decolorization of cationic and anionic dye-laden wastewater by steam-activated biochar produced at an industrial-scale from spent mushroom substrate","volume":"277","author":"Sewu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srivatsav, P., Bhargav, B.S., Shanmugasundaram, V., Arun, J., Gopinath, K.P., and Bhatnagar, A. (2020). Biochar as an eco-friendly and economical adsorbent for the removal of colorants (dyes) from aqueous environment: A review. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12123561"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.123681","article-title":"Activation of peroxymonosulfate by chemically modified sludge biochar for the removal of organic pollutants: Understanding the role of active sites and mechanism","volume":"392","author":"Mian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19917","DOI":"10.1039\/C8RA03018A","article-title":"Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution by cattle manure-derived low temperature biochar","volume":"8","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.136832","article-title":"Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions by biochar prepared from the pyrolysis of mixed municipal discarded material","volume":"714","author":"Hoslett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfin.2020.100616","article-title":"Synthesis of pyrolyzed biochar and its application for dye removal: Batch, kinetic and isotherm with linear and non-linear mathematical analysis","volume":"20","author":"Ganguly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Surf. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122441","article-title":"Activated biochar derived from Opuntia ficus-indica for the efficient adsorption of malachite green dye, Cu+2 and Ni+2 from water","volume":"392","author":"Choudhary","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eti.2020.100872","article-title":"One-stage preparation of palm petiole-derived biochar: Characterization and application for adsorption of crystal violet dye in water","volume":"19","author":"Chahinez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Technol. Innov."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"1","article-title":"Enhanced removal of cationic dye by eco-friendly activated biochar derived from rice straw","volume":"10","author":"Emran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2019.103446","article-title":"Biochars from animal wastes as alternative materials to treat colored effluents containing basic red 9","volume":"7","author":"Druzian","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122636","article-title":"Engineered biochar via microwave CO2 and steam pyrolysis to treat carcinogenic Congo red dye","volume":"395","author":"Yek","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2020.123564","article-title":"Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide modified magnetic biochar from pine nut shells for efficient removal of acid chrome blue K","volume":"312","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.1007\/s12633-020-00621-z","article-title":"Popped rice biochar and superhydrophobic SiO2\/popped rice biochar for oil adsorption","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Silicon"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2008.01.066","article-title":"Comparison of the mopping ability of chemically modified and unmodified biological wastes on crude oil and its lower fractions","volume":"99","author":"Nduka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"171","article-title":"Application of activated recycled rubber from used tyres in oil spill clean up","volume":"36","author":"Aisien","year":"2012","journal-title":"Turk. J. Eng. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.4491\/eer.2017.011","article-title":"Comparative adsorption of crude oil using mango (Mangnifera indica) shell and mango shell activated carbon","volume":"22","author":"Olufemi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.818.237","article-title":"Removal of Oil using Activated Carbon from Textile Sludge Biochars","volume":"818","author":"Sohaimi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.11648\/j.ajche.20200802.11","article-title":"Adsorption Studies of Oil Spill Clean-up Using Coconut Coir Activated Carbon","volume":"8","author":"Oboh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-67231-y","article-title":"Eco-friendly magnetic activated carbon nano-hybrid for facile oil spills separation","volume":"10","author":"Shokry","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9248","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b20924","article-title":"Biochar adsorbents with enhanced hydrophobicity for oil spill removal","volume":"12","author":"Navarathna","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4014043","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000872","article-title":"Evaluation of biochar as a potential filter media for the removal of mixed contaminants from urban storm water runoff","volume":"140","author":"Reddy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-016-1075-3","article-title":"Low-cost biochar derived from herbal residue: Characterization and application for ciprofloxacin adsorption","volume":"13","author":"Shang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2015.06.0320","article-title":"Sorption of lincomycin by manure-derived biochars from water","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2018.10.142","article-title":"Adsorption of two antibiotics on biochar prepared in air-containing atmosphere: Influence of biochar porosity and molecular size of antibiotics","volume":"274","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2013.10.033","article-title":"Adsorption of selected endocrine disrupting compounds and pharmaceuticals on activated biochars","volume":"263","author":"Jung","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"1","article-title":"Adsorption characteristics and mechanism of p-nitrophenol by pine sawdust biochar samples produced at different pyrolysis temperatures","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2017.04.039","article-title":"Adsorption of 2, 4-dichlorophenol on paper sludge\/wheat husk biochar: Process optimization and comparison with biochars prepared from wood chips, sewage sludge and hog fuel\/demolition waste","volume":"5","author":"Kalderis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2020.123455","article-title":"Effects of modification and magnetization of rice straw derived biochar on adsorption of tetracycline from water","volume":"311","author":"Dai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s42773-020-00070-2","article-title":"Adsorption of pharmaceuticals from aqueous solutions using biochar derived from cotton gin waste and guayule bagasse","volume":"3","author":"Ndoun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochar"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2010.08.067","article-title":"A novel magnetic biochar efficiently sorbs organic pollutants and phosphate","volume":"102","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2017.11.027","article-title":"Preparation of biochar from Enteromorpha prolifera and its use for the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from aqueous solution","volume":"149","author":"Qiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6189","DOI":"10.1021\/es1014423","article-title":"Catechol and humic acid sorption onto a range of laboratory-produced black carbons (biochars)","volume":"44","author":"Kasozi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.05.008","article-title":"Polar and aliphatic domains regulate sorption of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) to biochars","volume":"118","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2012.05.042","article-title":"Effects of pyrolysis temperature on soybean stover-and peanut shell-derived biochar properties and TCE adsorption in water","volume":"118","author":"Ahmad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1080\/26395940.2019.1607779","article-title":"Sorption of tetracycline on H2O2-modified biochar derived from rape stalk","volume":"31","author":"Tan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut. Bioavailab."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24389","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.0c02768","article-title":"Removal of drugs in polluted waters with char obtained by pyrolysis of hair waste from the tannery process","volume":"5","author":"Estiati","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3065","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-3815-z","article-title":"Study on the influence of surface potential on the nitrate adsorption capacity of metal modified biochar","volume":"26","author":"Long","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2008.03.005","article-title":"Removal of heavy metals from aqueous solution by sewage sludge based sorbents: Competitive effects","volume":"239","author":"Otero","year":"2009","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"1","article-title":"Biochar as a low-cost adsorbent for heavy metal removal: A review","volume":"6","author":"Patra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2012.01.003","article-title":"Effects of soil dilution and amendments (mussel shell, cow bone, and biochar) on Pb availability and phytotoxicity in military shooting range soil","volume":"79","author":"Ahmad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"1857","article-title":"Remediation effects of cotton stalk carbon on cadmium (Cd) contaminated soil","volume":"17","author":"Zhou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_142","first-page":"1829","article-title":"Movement-adsorption and its mechanism of Cd in soil under combining effects of electrokinetics and a new type of bamboo charcoal","volume":"28","author":"Ma","year":"2007","journal-title":"Huan Jing Ke Xue Huanjing Kexue"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.02.137","article-title":"H2O2 treatment enhanced the heavy metals removal by manure biochar in aqueous solutions","volume":"628","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.2478\/acmy-2020-0002","article-title":"Equilibrium and Kinetic Studies for the Adsorptive Removal of Lead (II) Ions from Aqueous Solution Using Activated Plantain Peel Biochar","volume":"4","author":"Nworie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Chem. Malays."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(18)61987-2","article-title":"Removal of Cd and Pb with biochar made from dairy manure at low temperature","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4992","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.8.4.4992-5004","article-title":"Influence of pyrolysis temperature on cadmium and zinc sorption capacity of sugar cane straw\u2013derived biochar","volume":"8","author":"Melo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioresources"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.15376\/biores.14.1.842-857","article-title":"Mechanism of adsorption of cadmium and lead ions by iron-activated biochar","volume":"14","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2020.112788","article-title":"Thermodynamics and kinetics of the removal of nickel (II) ions from aqueous solutions by biochar adsorbent made from agro-waste walnut shells","volume":"312","author":"Georgieva","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2575","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.9b02842","article-title":"Sustainable low-concentration arsenite [As (III)] removal in single and multicomponent systems using hybrid iron oxide\u2013biochar nanocomposite adsorbents\u2014A mechanistic study","volume":"5","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acs Omega"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2019.109465","article-title":"Sorption and removal of crude oil spills from seawater using peat-derived biochar: An optimization study","volume":"250","author":"AlAmeri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12022","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/545\/1\/012022","article-title":"Biochar produced from cotton husks and its application for the adsorption of oil products","volume":"545","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.146636","article-title":"Adsorptive removal of crude petroleum oil from water using floating pinewood biochar decorated with coconut oil-derived fatty acids","volume":"781","author":"Gurav","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122462","article-title":"A comprehensive review of engineered biochar: Production, characteristics, and environmental applications","volume":"270","author":"Panahi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2013.11.047","article-title":"Plant refuses driven biochar: Application as metal adsorbent from acidic solutions","volume":"10","author":"Khare","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2007.01.020","article-title":"Sorption of arsenic, cadmium, and lead by chars produced from fast pyrolysis of wood and bark during bio-oil production","volume":"310","author":"Mohan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-018-3790-1","article-title":"A critical review of mechanisms involved in the adsorption of organic and inorganic contaminants through biochar","volume":"11","author":"Abbas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2158","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2017.1418580","article-title":"Recent advances in engineered biochar productions and applications","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2009.05.054","article-title":"Effectiveness and mechanisms of dye adsorption on a straw-based biochar","volume":"100","author":"Qiu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.038","article-title":"Ultra-fast spill oil recovery using a mesoporous lignin based nanocomposite prepared from date palm pits (Phoenix dactylifera L.)","volume":"130","author":"Ahamad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12060","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/495\/1\/012060","article-title":"Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic analysis petroleum oil adsorption from aqueous solution by magnetic activated carbon","volume":"495","author":"Nazifa","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2020.07.006","article-title":"Engineered biochar modified with iron as a new adsorbent for treatment of water contaminated by selenium","volume":"24","author":"Godlewska","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-019-00474-5","article-title":"Enhanced removal of ammonium from water by ball-milled biochar","volume":"42","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1007\/s11664-019-07798-z","article-title":"Preparation of rice husk biochar-based magnetic nanocomposite for effective removal of crystal violet","volume":"49","author":"Luyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.07.079","article-title":"Fabrication of magnetic biochar as a treatment medium for As (V) via pyrolysis of FeCl3-pretreated spent coffee ground","volume":"229","author":"Cho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2020.101358","article-title":"Refractory oil wastewater treatment by dissolved air flotation, electrochemical advanced oxidation process, and magnetic biochar integrated system","volume":"36","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2014.10.007","article-title":"Combined performance of biochar sorption and magnetic separation processes for treatment of chromium-contained electroplating wastewater","volume":"174","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S., Chan, C.Y., Sharbatmaleki, M., Trejo, H., and Delagah, S. (2020). Engineered biochar production and its potential benefits in a closed-loop water-reuse agriculture system. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12102847"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1515\/revce-2018-0003","article-title":"Chemical activation of biochar for energy and environmental applications: A comprehensive review","volume":"35","author":"Sajjadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19932","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-2198-5","article-title":"Characteristics and batch experiments of acid-and alkali-modified corncob biomass for nitrate removal from aqueous solution","volume":"25","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.07.043","article-title":"MgO-modified biochar increases phosphate retention and rice yields in saline-alkaline soil","volume":"235","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.04.097","article-title":"Biochar-based engineered composites for sorptive decontamination of water: A review","volume":"372","author":"Premarathna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.08.178","article-title":"Potential of biochar filters for onsite sewage treatment: Adsorption and biological degradation of pharmaceuticals in laboratory filters with active, inactive and no biofilm","volume":"612","author":"Dalahmeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.136708","article-title":"Simultaneous manganese adsorption and biotransformation by Streptomyces violarus strain SBP1 cell-immobilized biochar","volume":"713","author":"Youngwilai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/11\/2\/117\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:15:09Z","timestamp":1760120109000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/11\/2\/117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]]},"references-count":173,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics11020117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics11020117","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]]}}}