{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T06:51:43Z","timestamp":1792047103323,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,19]],"date-time":"2023-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676764800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The modes of action of insecticides frequently involve a neurotoxic effect; therefore, the study of neurotoxic effects caused by long-term and low-dose insecticide exposure is of particular interest. This study looks at whether or not new studies conducted after 2009 and up to 2021 have provided new evidence for a better understanding of the actual neurobehavioral risk associated with long-term insecticide exposure. We selected and reviewed studies carried out on the neurobehavioral effects of neurotoxic insecticides (organophosphates and\/or carbamates, pyrethroids, multiple or undefined insecticides, and organochlorines) considering occupational and non-occupational exposures. The articles were also scored and ranked based on seven parameters. Eighty-six studies were chosen for a final review process from among the 950 scientific papers identified. Twenty-six addressed occupational exposure and six environmental exposure. Among the latter group of studies, 17 focused on rural residents, to be assumed exposed because of living in rural areas, and 43 on the general population. Pending doubts have not been resolved in the last ten years due to the presence of contradictory and hardly comparable results and the fact that in most of the studies showing an evident neurobehavioral impairment the frequent presence of a previous episode of poisoning and hospitalization, with severe brain hypoxia, impaired the possibility of confirming the presence of a causal association with insecticide exposure. Interestingly, the most severely exposed groups, such as applicators who did not wear personal protective equipment, performed worse on neurobehavioral tests. As for residential exposure, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that prenatal OP exposure may increase the risk of ADHD in children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11020192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]],"date-time":"2023-02-20T02:02:09Z","timestamp":1676858529000},"page":"192","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Neurobehavioral Effects of Low-Dose Chronic Exposure to Insecticides: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2693-1546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura Maria","family":"Antonangeli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Post Graduate School in Occupational Medicine, University of Milan, 20122 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saniya","family":"Kenzhebekova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, International Centre for Rural Health of the Santi Paolo e Carlo ASST of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudio","family":"Colosio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, International Centre for Rural Health of the Santi Paolo e Carlo ASST of Milan, 20142 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2005.07.002","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms underlying mancozeb-induced inhibition of TNF-alpha production","volume":"212","author":"Corsini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicol. 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