{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T15:26:28Z","timestamp":1791645988445,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]],"date-time":"2023-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals","award":["INCB2308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INCB2308"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The occurrence of sand and dust storms (SDSs) is essential for the geochemical cycling of nutrients; however, it is considered a meteorological hazard common to arid regions because of the adverse impacts that SDSs brings with them. One common implication of SDSs is the transport and disposition of aerosols coated with anthropogenic contaminants. Studies have reported the presence of such contaminants in desert dust; however, similar findings related to ubiquitous emerging contaminants, such as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), have been relatively scarce in the literature. This article reviews and identifies the potential sources of dust-associated PFAS that can accumulate and spread across SDS-prone regions. Furthermore, PFAS exposure routes and their toxicity through bioaccumulation in rodents and mammals are discussed. The major challenge when dealing with emerging contaminants is their quantification and analysis from different environmental media, and these PFAS include known and unknown precursors that need to be quantified. Consequently, a review of various analytical methods capable of detecting different PFAS compounds embedded in various matrices is provided. This review will provide researchers with valuable information relevant to the presence, toxicity, and quantification of dust-associated PFAS to develop appropriate mitigation measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11040335","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]],"date-time":"2023-03-31T10:19:33Z","timestamp":1680257973000},"page":"335","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Sources, Fate, and Detection of Dust-Associated Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4008-3804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Usman M.","family":"Ismail","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0508-5184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haitham","family":"Elnakar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Construction and Building Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Faizan","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alberta Environment and Protected Areas, Drinking Water and Wastewater, Regulatory Assurance Division, Government of Alberta, 2938 11 St. NE, Calgary, AB T2E 7L7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-1963(18)31249-7","article-title":"REVIEW Dust Storms in the Middle East","volume":"10","author":"Middleton","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.09.025","article-title":"Identification of Dust Storm Source Areas in West Asia Using Multiple Environmental Datasets","volume":"502","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2006.02.011","article-title":"A Review on East Asian Dust Storm Climate, Modelling and Monitoring","volume":"52","author":"Shao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Dousari, A., Doronzo, D., and Ahmed, M. (2017). Types, Indications and Impact Evaluation of Sand and Dust Storms Trajectories in the Arabian Gulf. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9091526"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390500227415","article-title":"Correlation of Asian Dust Storm Events with Daily Clinic Visits for Allergic Rhinitis in Taipei, Taiwan","volume":"69","author":"Chang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2013.10.011","article-title":"Desert Dust and Human Health Disorders","volume":"63","author":"Goudie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"APDIM (2023, March 04). Sand and Dust Storms Risk Assessment in Asia and the Pacific. Tehran. Available online: https:\/\/apdim.unescap.org\/knowledge-hub\/sand-and-dust-storms-risk-assessment-asia-and-pacific."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-12-00142.1","article-title":"Understanding the Transport and Impact of African Dust on the Caribbean Basin","volume":"94","author":"Prospero","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.133456","article-title":"Atmospheric Transport of Microplastics during a Dust Storm","volume":"292","author":"Abbasi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2004.01.015","article-title":"Atmospherically Transported Elements and Deposition in the Southeastern United States: Local or Transoceanic?","volume":"19","author":"Holmes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18475","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08362-7","article-title":"Contamination and Risk Levels of Metals Associated with Urban Street Dust in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","volume":"27","author":"Alharbi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alghamdi, A.G., EL-Saeid, M.H., Alzahrani, A.J., and Ibrahim, H.M. (2022). Heavy Metal Pollution and Associated Health Risk Assessment of Urban Dust in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0261957"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.4197\/Met.23-2-4","article-title":"Heavy Metal Distribution in Street Dust of Urban and Industrial Areas in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia","volume":"23","author":"Khoder","year":"2012","journal-title":"JKAU Met. Env. Arid Land Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"6059","article-title":"Assessment of Contents of Selected Heavy Metals in Street Dust from Khamees-Mushait City, Saudi Arabia, Using Multivariate Statistical Analysis, GIS Mapping, Geochemical Indices and Health Risk","volume":"28","author":"Idris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fresenius Environ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.5923\/j.env.20120206.05","article-title":"Measurements of Some Trace Elements in Street Dust in Zilfi Province at Saudi Arabia Using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer","volume":"2","author":"Suleman","year":"2012","journal-title":"World Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"10","article-title":"Some Trace Elements in Zilfi Streets Dust","volume":"2013","author":"Suleman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-9697(93)90308-S","article-title":"Lead and Cadmium in Urban Dust of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","volume":"136","author":"Ahmed","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-9697(93)90415-3","article-title":"Simultaneous Elemental Analysis in Dust of the City of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP\/MS)","volume":"138","author":"Ahmed","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcbee.2013.05.010","article-title":"Falling Dust Characteristics in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia During Winter Months","volume":"5","author":"Modaihsh","year":"2013","journal-title":"APCBEE Procedia"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2021.100309","article-title":"Inhalation Risks of Wind-Blown Dust from Biosolid-Applied Agricultural Lands: Are They Enriched with Microplastics and PFAS?","volume":"25","author":"Borthakur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2508","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b04806","article-title":"A Never-Ending Story of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)?","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"ATSDR (2023, March 04). Toxicological Profile for Perfluoroalkyls, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp200.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2014.11.008","article-title":"Selecting Reliable Physicochemical Properties of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) Based on Molecular Descriptors","volume":"196","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jced.9b00922","article-title":"Vapor Pressure of Nine Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) Determined Using the Knudsen Effusion Method","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Data"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6232","DOI":"10.1021\/jp0502961","article-title":"Vapor Pressure and Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding in Fluorotelomer Alcohols","volume":"109","author":"Krusic","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2023, February 09). USEPA CompTox Chemicals Dashboard|US EPA, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/chemical-research\/comptox-chemicals-dashboard."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1071\/EN10143","article-title":"Using COSMOtherm to Predict Physicochemical Properties of Poly- and Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFASs)","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Borg, D., H\u00e5kansson, H., and Institutet, K. (2023, March 04). Environmental and Health Risk Assessment of Perfluoroalkylated and Polyfluoroalkylated Substances (PFASs) in Sweden. Available online: https:\/\/www.diva-portal.org\/smash\/get\/diva2:770762\/FULLTEXT01.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1002\/ieam.258","article-title":"Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment: Terminology, Classification, and Origins","volume":"7","author":"Buck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Integr. Environ. Assess Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Bergstr\u00f6m, S. (2023, March 04). Transport of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Soil and Groundwater in Uppsala, Sweden. Available online: https:\/\/stud.epsilon.slu.se\/7392\/18\/bergstrom_s_141008.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2015.08.066","article-title":"Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Indoor Dust and Food Packaging Materials in Egypt: Trends in Developed and Developing Countries","volume":"144","author":"Shoeib","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1862","DOI":"10.1021\/es0520767","article-title":"Atmospheric Chemistry of N-Methyl Perfluorobutane Sulfonamidoethanol, C4F9SO2N(CH3)CH2CH 2OH: Kinetics and Mechanism of Reaction with OH","volume":"40","author":"Hurley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139694","article-title":"Plastic Additives as Tracers of Microplastic Sources in Japanese Road Dusts","volume":"736","author":"Kitahara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2021.05.033","article-title":"Understanding the Fate and Control of Road Dust-Associated Microplastics in Stormwater","volume":"152","author":"Monira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.125811","article-title":"Quantification of Selected Microplastics in Australian Urban Road Dust","volume":"416","author":"Okoffo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.2c00502","article-title":"Presumptive Contamination: A New Approach to PFAS Contamination Based on Likely Sources","volume":"9","author":"Salvatore","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2015.05.005","article-title":"Elevated Levels of PFOS and PFHxS in Firefighters Exposed to Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)","volume":"82","author":"Rotander","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14558","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c04869","article-title":"Per- And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Dust Collected from Residential Homes and Fire Stations in North America","volume":"54","author":"Hall","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b05040","article-title":"Advances in Distinguishing Groundwater Influenced by Oil Sands Process-Affected Water (OSPW) from Natural Bitumen-Influenced Groundwaters","volume":"54","author":"Roy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.F., and Elnakar, H. (2022). Treatment of Oil Sands\u2019 Mature Fine Tailings Using Advanced Wet Air Oxidation (WAO) and Wet Air Peroxide Oxidation (WAPO). Catalysts, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal12121518"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2016.01.014","article-title":"Occurrence of Select Perfluoroalkyl Substances at U.S. Air Force Aqueous Film-Forming Foam Release Sites Other than Fire-Training Areas: Field-Validation of Critical Fate and Transport Properties","volume":"150","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.4935","article-title":"PFAS Exposure Pathways for Humans and Wildlife: A Synthesis of Current Knowledge and Key Gaps in Understanding","volume":"40","author":"Armitage","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.6b00260","article-title":"Detection of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in U.S. Drinking Water Linked to Industrial Sites, Military Fire Training Areas, and Wastewater Treatment Plants","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1021\/es0512475","article-title":"Sources, Fate and Transport of Perfluorocarboxylates","volume":"40","author":"Prevedouros","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2016.02.022","article-title":"Fast and Simple Determination of Perfluorinated Compounds and Their Potential Precursors in Different Packaging Materials","volume":"152","author":"Zabaleta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2012.03.035","article-title":"Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Consumer Products in Norway\u2014A Pilot Study","volume":"88","author":"Herzke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b03806","article-title":"Ubiquitous Occurrence of Fluorotelomer Alcohols in Eco-Friendly Paper-Made Food-Contact Materials and Their Implication for Human Exposure","volume":"50","author":"Yuan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-018-0094-1","article-title":"A Review of the Pathways of Human Exposure to Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) and Present Understanding of Health Effects","volume":"29","author":"Sunderland","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-021-00326-4","article-title":"Prevalence and Implications of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Settled Dust","volume":"8","author":"Savvaides","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6908","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b06956","article-title":"Flows, Stock, and Emissions of Poly-and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in California Carpet in 2000\u20132030 under Different Scenarios","volume":"54","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1002\/wer.1409","article-title":"Disinfection and Antimicrobial Processes","volume":"92","author":"Elnakar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020075","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001754","article-title":"Treatment of Bypass Wastewater Using Novel Integrated Potassium Ferrate(VI) and Iron Electrocoagulation System","volume":"146","author":"Elnakar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3354","DOI":"10.1080\/09593330.2019.1609589","article-title":"Treatment of Bypass Wastewater Using Potassium Ferrate(VI): Assessing the Role of Mixing","volume":"41","author":"Elnakar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.136076","article-title":"Soluble Chemical Oxygen Demand Removal from Bypass Wastewater Using Iron Electrocoagulation","volume":"706","author":"Elnakar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.137057","article-title":"Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water and Soil in Wastewater-Irrigated Farmland in Jordan","volume":"716","author":"Shigei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.024","article-title":"Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Water, Soil and Plants in Wetlands and Agricultural Areas in Kampala, Uganda","volume":"631\u2013632","author":"Dalahmeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2015.09.023","article-title":"Temporal Trends of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Limed Biosolids from a Large Municipal Water Resource Recovery Facility","volume":"165","author":"Armstrong","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Environ Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.1990.10466759","article-title":"Evaluation of Regenerative-Air Vacuum Street Sweeping on Geological Contributions to Pm10","volume":"40","author":"Chow","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.07.004","article-title":"Dry Deposition and Resuspension of Particle-Associated Metals near a Freeway in Los Angeles","volume":"40","author":"Sabin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.07.136","article-title":"Assessment of Direct Exposure and Leaching Risk from PAHs in Roadway and Stormwater System Residuals","volume":"609","author":"Azah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.09.048","article-title":"Wintertime Size Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) in the Urban Environment: Street- vs. Rooftop-Level Measurements","volume":"43","author":"Chrysikou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos Environ"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shabbaj, I.I., Alghamdi, M.A., Shamy, M., Hassan, S.K., Alsharif, M.M., and Khoder, M.I. (2017). Risk Assessment and Implication of Human Exposure to Road Dust Heavy Metals in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15010036"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4184-2","article-title":"Investigation of Selected Heavy Metals in Street and House Dust from Al-Qunfudah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia","volume":"74","author":"Harb","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6069","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c03766","article-title":"Per- And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Street Sweepings","volume":"56","author":"Ahmadireskety","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2020.07.020","article-title":"Fate of Road-Dust Associated Microplastics and per- and Polyfluorinated Substances in Stormwater","volume":"144","author":"Pramanik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2008.07.063","article-title":"Perfluorinated Surfactants (PFSs) in Size-Fractionated Street Dust in Tokyo","volume":"73","author":"Murakami","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2015.12.019","article-title":"Concentration and Distribution of Contaminants in Lake Trout and Walleye from the Laurentian Great Lakes (2008\u20132012)","volume":"217","author":"McGoldrick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2011.615108","article-title":"Dermal Penetration Potential of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) in Human and Mouse Skin","volume":"75","author":"Franko","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2018.10.023","article-title":"Accumulation of Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) in Agricultural Plants: A Review","volume":"169","author":"Ghisi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.2008.01017.x","article-title":"Estimating Consumer Exposure to PFOS and PFOA","volume":"28","author":"Trudel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2008.04.007","article-title":"Perfluorinated Compounds\u2014Exposure Assessment for the General Population in Western Countries","volume":"212","author":"Fromme","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3676","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b00649","article-title":"Nationwide Distribution of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Outdoor Dust in Mainland China from Eastern to Western Areas","volume":"50","author":"Yao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6098","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120606098","article-title":"Serum Biomarkers of Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Relation to Serum Testosterone and Measures of Thyroid Function among Adults and Adolescents from NHANES 2011\u20132012","volume":"12","author":"Lewis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"CDC (2023, March 04). Fourth National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/biomonitoring\/pdf\/fourthreport_updatedtables_feb2015.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10598","article-title":"Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals in the U.S. Population: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2004 and Comparisons with NHANES 1999\u20132000","volume":"115","author":"Calafat","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1021\/es001834k","article-title":"Global Distribution of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate in Wildlife","volume":"35","author":"Giesy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2023, March 04). USEPA EPA\u2019s Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Action Plan, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-02\/documents\/pfas_action_plan_021319_508compliant_1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2023, March 04). USEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory for Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS), Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2016-05\/documents\/pfos_health_advisory_final-plain.pdf."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"(2023, March 04). USEPA Drinking Water Health Advisory for Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2016-05\/documents\/pfoa_health_advisory_final-plain.pdf."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2007.07.024","article-title":"Perfluorooctane Sulphonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) in Human Breast Milk: Results of a Pilot Study","volume":"211","author":"Demmelmair","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"(2023, March 04). ATSDR National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Surfactants, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/biomonitoring\/pdf\/fourthreport_updatedtables_volume1_jan2017.pdf."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"(2023, March 21). Biomonitoring California Results for Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)|Measuring Chemicals in Californians, Available online: https:\/\/biomonitoring.ca.gov\/results\/chemical\/2183."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7132","DOI":"10.1021\/es801224v","article-title":"Time Trends and Transplacental Transfer of Perfluorinated Compounds in Melon-Headed Whales Stranded along the Japanese Coast in 1982, 2001\/2002, and 2006","volume":"42","author":"Hart","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2008.08.005","article-title":"Total Fluorine, Extractable Organic Fluorine, Perfluorooctane Sulfonate and Other Related Fluorochemicals in Liver of Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphins (Sousa Chinensis) and Finless Porpoises (Neophocaena Phocaenoides) from South China","volume":"157","author":"Yeung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-6535(02)00304-1","article-title":"Concentrations of Perfluorinated Acids in Livers of Birds from Japan and Korea","volume":"49","author":"Kannan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.136869","article-title":"Foam Fractionation of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Landfill Leachate Using Different Cosurfactants","volume":"310","author":"Vo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157723","article-title":"Performance of In-Service Granular Activated Carbon for Perfluoroalkyl Substances Removal under Changing Water Quality Conditions","volume":"848","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6212","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c03780","article-title":"Removal of Zwitterionic PFAS by MXenes: Comparisons with Anionic, Nonionic, and PFAS-Specific Resins","volume":"56","author":"Dixit","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14517","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c05143","article-title":"An Integrated Approach for Determination of Total Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)","volume":"56","author":"Shojaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.112530","article-title":"Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Persistent Chemical Mixtures in Dust from U.S. Colleges","volume":"206","author":"Schildroth","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.1c00481","article-title":"The Air That We Breathe: Neutral and Volatile PFAS in Indoor Air","volume":"8","author":"Becanova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7779","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c06126","article-title":"Environmental Fate of Cl-PFPECAs: Predicting the Formation of PFAS Transformation Products in New Jersey Soils","volume":"56","author":"Evich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2477","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestwater.1c00215","article-title":"Screening for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water with Particle Induced Gamma-Ray Emission Spectroscopy","volume":"1","author":"Peaslee","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS ES&T Water"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-021-00288-7","article-title":"Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and Total Fluorine in Fire Station Dust","volume":"31","author":"Young","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hazl.2021.100023","article-title":"Total and Class-Specific Analysis of per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Environmental Samples Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy","volume":"2","author":"Camdzic","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.05.463","article-title":"de los \u00c1. Occurrence and Human Exposure Assessment of Perfluorinated Substances in House Dust from Three European Countries","volume":"685","author":"Navarro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.114461","article-title":"Novel and Legacy Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Indoor Dust from Urban, Industrial, and e-Waste Dismantling Areas: The Emergence of PFAS Alternatives in China","volume":"263","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17090","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c05198","article-title":"Organic Fluorine as an Indicator of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Dust from Buildings with Healthier versus Conventional Materials","volume":"56","author":"Young","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106063","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2022.106063","article-title":"Coupled High and Low-Frequency Ultrasound Remediation of PFAS-Contaminated Soils","volume":"88","author":"Kewalramani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochem"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.133922","article-title":"A Fast and Simple PFAS Extraction Method Utilizing HR\u2013CS\u2013GFMAS for Soil Samples","volume":"295","author":"Simon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.134855","article-title":"Concentration and Distribution of Metals, Total Fluorine, per- and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Vertical Soil Profiles in Industrialized Areas","volume":"302","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radphyschem.2021.109705","article-title":"Degradation of PFOS and PFOA in Soil and Groundwater Samples by High Dose Electron Beam Technology","volume":"189","author":"Lassalle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Radiat. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2022.119019","article-title":"Pilot Study Comparison of Regenerable and Emerging Single-Use Anion Exchange Resins for Treatment of Groundwater Contaminated by per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)","volume":"223","author":"Ellis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestengg.1c00335","article-title":"An Investigation of Thermal Air Degradation and Pyrolysis of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Aqueous Film-Forming Foams in Soil","volume":"2","author":"Alinezhad","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS ES&T Eng."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.119620","article-title":"Occurrence, Distribution, and Input Pathways of per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Soils near Different Sources in Shanghai","volume":"308","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2021.117677","article-title":"Pilot-Scale Field Demonstration of a Hybrid Nanofiltration and UV-Sulfite Treatment Train for Groundwater Contaminated by per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)","volume":"205","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.134001","article-title":"Nanoparticle-Embedded Hydrogel Synthesized Electrodes for Electrochemical Oxidation of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS)","volume":"296","author":"Hwang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2022.103960","article-title":"Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Environmental River Water Samples","volume":"15","author":"Selahle","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2022.107192","article-title":"Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes Degrade Short- and Long-Chain per- and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances in Real Industrial Wastewaters","volume":"10","author":"Nienhauser","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.137735","article-title":"Titanium Oxide Improves Boron Nitride Photocatalytic Degradation of Perfluorooctanoic Acid","volume":"448","author":"Duan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestwater.1c00501","article-title":"Ion-Exchange Treatment of Perfluorinated Carboxylic Acids in Water: Comparison of Polystyrenic and Polyacrylic Resin Structures and Impact of Sulfate on Their Performance","volume":"2","author":"Rahman","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS ES&T Water"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155524","article-title":"Spatial Distribution and Mass Transport of Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Surface Water: A Statewide Evaluation of PFAS Occurrence and Fate in Alabama","volume":"836","author":"Viticoski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2022.107457","article-title":"High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry-Based Strategies for the Target Analysis and Suspect Screening of per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Aqueous Matrices","volume":"179","author":"Koronaiou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2021.462493","article-title":"Ultratrace Analysis of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Drinking Water Using Ice Concentration Linked with Extractive Stirrer and High Performance Liquid Chromatography\u2014Tandem Mass Spectrometry","volume":"1659","author":"Skaggs","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.132143","article-title":"Development, Validation, and Application of a New Method for the Quantitative Determination of Monohydrogen-Substituted Perfluoroalkyl Carboxylic Acids (H\u2013PFCAs) in Surface Water","volume":"287","author":"Awchi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2022.118542","article-title":"Rapid Quantitative Analysis and Suspect Screening of Per-and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFASs) in Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFFs) and Municipal Wastewater Samples by Nano-ESI-HRMS","volume":"219","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.133855","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Distribution, Partitioning Behavior and Flux of per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Sediment from Poyang Lake, China","volume":"295","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.132790","article-title":"Coupled Photocatalytic Alkaline Media as a Destructive Technology for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Aqueous Film-Forming Foam Impacted Stormwater","volume":"291","author":"McIntyre","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.150393","article-title":"Assessment of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Biscayne Bay Surface Waters and Tap Waters from South Florida","volume":"806","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.150211","article-title":"Temporal Trends of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in an Australian Wastewater Treatment Plant: A Ten-Year Retrospective Investigation","volume":"804","author":"Gallen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.132409","article-title":"Occurrence of Legacy and Emerging Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Water: A Case Study in Tianjin (China)","volume":"287","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2021.131069","article-title":"Air Monitoring with Passive Samplers for Perfluoroalkane Substances in Developing Countries (2017\u20132019)","volume":"282","author":"Sadia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155496","article-title":"A New On-Line SPE LC-HRMS Method for the Analysis of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in PM2.5 and Its Application for Screening Atmospheric Particulates from Dublin and Enniscorthy, Ireland","volume":"835","author":"Kourtchev","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2022.129025","article-title":"Fluorine Mass Balance Analysis and Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Atmosphere","volume":"435","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/11\/4\/335\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:07:45Z","timestamp":1760123265000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/11\/4\/335"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics11040335"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics11040335","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]]}}}