{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T18:20:39Z","timestamp":1788373239576,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,10]],"date-time":"2025-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736467200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32102730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32102730"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PC2021091"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PC2021091"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Open Project Program of Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology","award":["32102730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32102730"]}]},{"name":"Open Project Program of Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology","award":["PC2021091"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PC2021091"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People\u2019s Republic of China","award":["32102730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32102730"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People\u2019s Republic of China","award":["PC2021091"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PC2021091"]}]},{"name":"International Postdoctoral Exchange Fellowship Program 2021 by the Office of China Postdoctoral Council","award":["32102730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32102730"]}]},{"name":"International Postdoctoral Exchange Fellowship Program 2021 by the Office of China Postdoctoral Council","award":["PC2021091"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PC2021091"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hypochlorous acid has been attempted as an additive to animal drinking water in practical animal farming processes for water microbial quality control. Despite its potential, there is still a knowledge gap concerning the effects of hypochlorous acid on both poultry growth performance and gut microbial load. To address this gap, an animal study was conducted using flow cytometry to quantify the age-related microbial load in broiler manure and gut contents. We observed that the effect on growth performance was sustained only during the starter phase, with no significant impact throughout the entire production cycle. The treatment could reduce the microbial load of both fresh broiler manure and cecal contents. Despite this convergence in the duodenum, significant differences in microbial loads between the control and treatment groups persisted in the manure and cecal contents throughout the later stages. Our findings demonstrate that consuming low-concentration hypochlorous acid water over the long term can lower the microbial load in the broiler gut throughout the entire growth cycle without impacting overall growth performance. Future research on drinking or feed additives should incorporate microbial absolute quantification methods to achieve a more precise assessment of microbiota.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13010048","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,10]],"date-time":"2025-01-10T03:48:11Z","timestamp":1736480891000},"page":"48","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Low-Concentration Hypochlorous Acid Drinking Water Alleviates Broiler Gut Microbial Load While Preserving Overall Growth Performance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4908-8299","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zonggang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7500-6373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People\u2019s Republic of China, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongyan","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chune","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingqi","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9528-5074","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Senzhong","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People\u2019s Republic of China, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teng Teeh","family":"Lim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Plant Science and Technology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3346-7689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People\u2019s Republic of China, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30149-3","article-title":"Changes in colistin resistance and mcr-1 abundance in Escherichia coli of animal and human origins following the ban of colistin-positive additives in China: An epidemiological comparative study","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Callaway, T.R., Lillehoj, H., Chuanchuen, R., and Gay, C.G. (2021). Alternatives to antibiotics: A symposium on the challenges and solutions for animal health and production. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10050471"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2861","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2011-4739","article-title":"Extension education symposium: The future of biosecurity and antimicrobial use in livestock production in the United States and the role of extension1","volume":"90","author":"Clark","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1111\/jwas.12966","article-title":"Biosecurity: Reducing the burden of disease","volume":"54","author":"Subasinghe","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Edwards, L., and Drinking Water Quality and Its Impact on the Health and Performance of Pigs (2022, August 18). Co-Operative Research Centre for High Integrity Australian Pork. Available online: https:\/\/porkcrc.com.au\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/2A-118-Drinking-Water-Quality-Final-Report.pdf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mustedanagic, A., Matt, M., Weyermair, K., Schrattenecker, A., Kubitza, I., Firth, C.L., Loncaric, I., Wagner, M., and Stessl, B. (2023). Assessment of microbial quality in poultry drinking water on farms in Austria. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1254442"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maes, S., Vackier, T., Huu, S.N., Heyndrickx, M., Steenackers, H., Sampers, I., Raes, K., Verplaetse, A., and De Reu, K. (2019). Occurrence and characterisation of biofilms in drinking water systems of broiler houses. BMC Microbiol., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-019-1451-5"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12966","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-024-31911-3","article-title":"From source to house: Unraveling the seasonal effect of water distribution system on drinking water quality of poultry farms under Egyptian environmental condition","volume":"31","author":"Kamal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Env. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"206","article-title":"Assessment of drinking water quality and new disinfectants for water treatment in a small commercial poultry farm","volume":"10","author":"Mohammed","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ara\u00fajo, D., Silva, A.R., Fernandes, R., Serra, P., Barros, M.M., Campos, A.M., Oliveira, R., Silva, S., Almeida, C., and Castro, J. (2024). Emerging approaches for mitigating biofilm-formation-associated infections in farm, wild, and companion animals. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13040320"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pineda, M.R., Byrd, J.A., Genovese, K.J., Farnell, Y.Z., Zhao, D., Wang, X., Milby, A.C., and Farnell, M.B. (2021). Evaluation of sodium bisulfate on reducing salmonella heidelberg biofilm and colonization in broiler crops and ceca. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102047"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.15302\/J-FASE-2016109","article-title":"Electrolyzed water and its application in animal houses","volume":"3","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Agric. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2013.07.009","article-title":"Electrolyzed water as novel technology to improve hygiene of drinking water for dairy ewes","volume":"95","author":"Bodas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"230","article-title":"Experiment on bactericidal efficacy in drinking system using slightly acidic electrolyzed water in large-scale poultry houses","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joms.2020.06.029","article-title":"Hypochlorous acid: A review","volume":"78","author":"Block","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1718","article-title":"Comparison of the preventive effects of slightly acidic HOCl mouthwash and CHX mouthwash for oral diseases","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2010.10.016","article-title":"Biological toxicity of acid electrolyzed functional water: Effect of oral administration on mouse digestive tract and changes in body weight","volume":"56","author":"Morita","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1258\/la.2011.010122","article-title":"Effects of slightly acidic electrolysed drinking water on mice","volume":"45","author":"Inagaki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lab Anim."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2014-03909","article-title":"Benefits of neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water as a drinking water additive for broiler chickens","volume":"93","author":"Kump","year":"2014","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hao, X., Xie, D., Jiang, D., Zhu, L., Shen, L., Gan, M., and Bai, L. (2023). Effect of slightly acidic electrolyzed water on growth, diarrhea and intestinal bacteria of newly weaned piglets. Genes, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes14071398"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2023.103176","article-title":"Comprehensive evaluation of treating drinking water for laying hens using slightly acidic electrolyzed water","volume":"103","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuv039","article-title":"Potential role of the intestinal microbiota in programming health and disease","volume":"73","author":"Goulet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2012-02822","article-title":"Bacterial census of poultry intestinal microbiome","volume":"92","author":"Wei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anifeedsci.2018.10.008","article-title":"The effect of microbiome modulation on the intestinal health of poultry","volume":"250","author":"Kogut","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anim. Feed Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, S., and Jha, R. (2019). Strategies to modulate the intestinal microbiota and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, and health of poultry. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-018-0310-9"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad3503","article-title":"Population-level analysis of gut microbiome variation","volume":"352","author":"Falony","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1038\/nature24460","article-title":"Quantitative microbiome profiling links gut community variation to microbial load","volume":"551","author":"Vandeputte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad3369","article-title":"Population-based metagenomics analysis reveals markers for gut microbiome composition and diversity","volume":"352","author":"Zhernakova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjw024","article-title":"Meta-omics in inflammatory bowel disease research: Applications, challenges, and guidelines","volume":"10","author":"Darzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2557","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2016.45","article-title":"Soyer, Challenges in microbial ecology: Building predictive understanding of community function and dynamics","volume":"10","author":"Widder","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00162","DOI":"10.1128\/mSystems.00162-16","article-title":"Balance trees reveal microbial niche differentiation","volume":"2","author":"Morton","year":"2017","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2016.117","article-title":"Absolute quantification of microbial taxon abundances","volume":"11","author":"Props","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"27","article-title":"Effects of drinking slightly acidic electrolyzed water on intestinal microbial and immune function of broilers","volume":"48","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Northwest Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"113","article-title":"Study on the effects of slightly acidic electrolyzed water on the intestinal microflora of laying hens","volume":"1","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. China Agric. Univ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Howe, S., Deng, F., and Zhao, J. (2021). Current applications of absolute bacterial quantification in microbiome studies and decision-making regarding different biological questions. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9091797"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3923\/pjbs.2014.74.79","article-title":"Poultry farm hygiene: Microbiological quality assessment of drinking water used in layer chickens managed under the battery cage and deep litter systems at three poultry farms in southwestern Nigeria","volume":"17","author":"Folorunso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pak. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"97","article-title":"Bacterial quality assessment of drinking water for layer chicken managed under battery cage and deep litter systems from Sokoto Metropolis, Nigeria","volume":"24","author":"Sarkingobir","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Arbor Acres Group (2018). Arbor Acres Broiler Management Handbook, Arbor Acres. Available online: https:\/\/aviagen.com\/assets\/Tech_Center\/AA_Broiler\/AA-BroilerHandbook2018-EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, P., Ma, C., Sun, Z., Wang, L., Huang, S., Su, X., Xu, J., and Zhang, H. (2017). Feed-additive probiotics accelerate yet antibiotics delay intestinal microbiota maturation in broiler chicken. Microbiome, 5.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0315-1"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1538\/expanim.14-0068","article-title":"Effect of hypochlorous acid solution on the eradication and prevention of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection, serum biochemical variables, and cecum microbiota in rats","volume":"64","author":"Goto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Anim."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16072","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c03692","article-title":"Combined voltammetric measurement of pH and free chlorine speciation using a micro-spot sp2 bonded carbon\u2013boron doped diamond electrode","volume":"92","author":"Lucio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2013.07.051","article-title":"Monitoring microbiological changes in drinking water systems using a fast and reproducible flow cytometric method","volume":"47","author":"Prest","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2007.07.009","article-title":"Flow-cytometric total bacterial cell counts as a descriptive microbiological parameter for drinking water treatment processes","volume":"42","author":"Hammes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-7012(03)00201-X","article-title":"Enumeration of water-borne bacteria using viability assays and flow cytometry: A comparison to culture-based techniques","volume":"55","author":"Hoefel","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/s43705-022-00123-6","article-title":"Fast quantification of gut bacterial species in cocultures using flow cytometry and supervised classification","volume":"2","author":"Joseph","year":"2022","journal-title":"ISME Commun."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2012.06.010","article-title":"Flow cytometry and adenosine tri-phosphate analysis: Alternative possibilities to evaluate major bacteriological changes in drinking water treatment and distribution systems","volume":"46","author":"Vital","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4103\/2045-9912.229597","article-title":"Effects of molecular hydrogen-dissolved alkaline electrolyzed water on intestinal environment in mice","volume":"8","author":"Higashimura","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Gas Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2023.102707","article-title":"Growth performance and cecal microbiota of broiler chicks as affected by drinking water disinfection and\/or herbal extract blend supplementation","volume":"102","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2023.103140","article-title":"Regulating effects of chlorinated drinking water on cecal microbiota of broiler chicks","volume":"102","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.169933","article-title":"Exposure to chlorinated drinking water alters the murine fecal microbiota","volume":"914","author":"Jandova","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.01.015","article-title":"Biogeography of the intestinal mucosal and lumenal microbiome in the rhesus macaque","volume":"17","author":"Yasuda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Jutzi, S. (2004). Assessing Quality and Safety of Animal Feeds, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/1\/48\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:26:11Z","timestamp":1759919171000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/1\/48"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,10]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13010048"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13010048","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,10]]}}}