{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T02:51:55Z","timestamp":1780887115238,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute for Work Compensation (INAIL)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, there has been a significant increase in attention towards the use of pesticides, as evidenced by the introduction of regulations aimed at ensuring their safe and environmentally responsible application. Although this stricter legislative framework offers potential benefits, the challenges faced by farmers, particularly those in small-scale operations, in complying with occupational health and safety (OHS) requirements are considerable. To address this issue, a research project was promoted by the Italian Workers\u2019 Compensation Authority (INAIL) aimed at developing a user-friendly software tool to support farmers in planning pesticide applications in safe conditions. This study summarizes the results of the research, which consisted of three main phases: the definition of the main parameters that characterize the farmers\u2019 exposure based on the analysis of the literature; the development of a risk assessment model that integrates these determinants with data provided by producers for each authorized pesticide; and the development of software tool (called SICURPEST) for a preliminary risk assessment when using pesticides. This tool serves as a preliminary risk assessment method, offering a simplified model for practical use by farmers. Its initial verification was conducted through a case study and the results represent a step towards promoting safer pesticide practices, providing a solid basis for further validation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13020089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T09:40:39Z","timestamp":1737711639000},"page":"89","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Sicurpest: A Prototype of a User-Friendly Tool for Preventive Risk Assessment of Pesticide Use in Agriculture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9620-1883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federico Maria","family":"Rubino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, University of Milano, Via A Di Rudin\u00ec 8, 20124 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9153-4063","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele","family":"Puri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Technological Innovations and Safety of Plants, Products and Anthropic Settlements (DIT), Italian Workers\u2019 Compensation Authority (INAIL), Via Fontana Candida 1, Monte Porzio Catone, 00078 Roma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3007-089X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Fargnoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4884-6318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mara","family":"Lombardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering Materials Environment (DICMA), Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4793-1756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan","family":"Mandi\u0107-Raj\u010devi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"School of Public Health and Health Management, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudio","family":"Colosio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post Graduate School in Occupational Health, University of Milano, 20124 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"European Risk Observatory (ERO) (2024, October 01). Review of the Future of Agriculture and Occupational Safety and Health (OSH). Foresight on New and Emerging Risks in OSH. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Available online: https:\/\/op.europa.eu\/en\/publication-detail\/-\/publication\/2f4a9f86-604d-11eb-8146-01aa75ed71a1\/language-en."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.5604\/12321966.1219182","article-title":"Agricultural injuries in Korea and errors in systems of safety","volume":"23","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1504\/IJRS.2018.094943","article-title":"A fuzzy-QFD approach for the enhancement of work equipment safety: A case study in the agriculture sector","volume":"12","author":"Fargnoli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Reliab. Saf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, X., Yao, X., Cong, X., Li, S., Han, M., Tao, Z., Yang, X., Qi, X., Shi, F., and Wang, S. (2024). Profile and risk factors in farmer injuries: A review based on Haddon matrix and 5 E\u2019s risk reduction strategy. Front. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1322884"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damalas, C.A., and Koutroubas, S.D. (2016). Farmers\u2019 Exposure to Pesticides: Toxicity Types and Ways of Prevention. Toxics, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics4010001"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.124657","article-title":"An extensive review on the consequences of chemical pesticides on human health and environment","volume":"283","author":"Rani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8609(99)00010-2","article-title":"Risks associated with the use of chemicals in pond aquaculture","volume":"20","author":"Boyd","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aquac. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-019-00841-x","article-title":"A Review on Occurrence of Pesticides in Environment and Current Technologies for Their Remediation and Management","volume":"60","author":"Rajmohan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29128","article-title":"Pesticides impacts on human health and the environment with their mechanisms of action and possible countermeasures","volume":"10","author":"Ahmad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, A., and da Silva, M.V. (2023). Pesticide Application as a Risk Factor\/Behaviour for Workers\u2019 Health: A Systematic Review. Environments, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202308.1406.v1"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8051402","article-title":"Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, and Risk Assessment Indicators","volume":"8","author":"Damalas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2007.05.002","article-title":"Pesticide exposure among farm workers","volume":"105","author":"Burns","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1080\/09603123.2014.980781","article-title":"Occupational exposure to pesticides and resultant health problems among cotton farmers of Punjab, Pakistan","volume":"25","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keleb, A., Ademas, A., Abebe, M., Berihun, G., Desye, B., and Bezie, A.E. (2024). Knowledge of health risks, safety practices, acute pesticide poisoning, and associated factors among farmers in rural irrigation areas of northeastern Ethiopia. Front. Public Health, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1474487"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2009.05.001","article-title":"Biomonitoring for occupational health risk assessment (BOHRA)","volume":"192","author":"Manno","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"430","article-title":"Risk assessment and management of occupational exposure to pesticides in agriculture","volume":"97","author":"Maroni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Lav."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2018.08.008","article-title":"Risk assessment of occupational pesticide exposure: Use of endpoints and surrogates","volume":"98","author":"Machado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fargnoli, M., Lombardi, M., Puri, D., Casorri, L., Masciarelli, E., Mandi\u0107-Raj\u010devi\u0107, S., and Colosio, C. (2019). The Safe Use of Pesticides: A Risk Assessment Procedure for the Enhancement of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Management. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16030310"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"510","article-title":"Farmer\u2019s Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices, and their Exposure to Pesticide Residues after Application on the Vegetable and Fruit Crops. Case Study: North of Delta, Egypt","volume":"7","author":"Abbassy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fargnoli, M., and Lombardi, M. (2020). NOSACQ-50 for Safety Climate Assessment in Agricultural Activities: A Case Study in Central Italy. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17249177"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"103","article-title":"Survey on the status of enforcement of european directives on health and safety at work in some farms of central italy","volume":"58","author":"Cecchini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2024, November 04). Guidance for the Assessment of Exposure of Operators, Workers, Residents and Bystanders in Risk Assessment of Plant Protection Products. Available online: https:\/\/www.efsa.europa.eu\/en\/efsajournal\/pub\/7032."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"101","article-title":"Pesticides applicator exposure assessment: A comparison between modeling and actual measurement","volume":"5","author":"Abukari","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22252","article-title":"PubMed search strings for the study of agricultural workers\u2019 diseases","volume":"56","author":"Mattioli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Ind. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2017.14","article-title":"Environmental and biological monitoring for the identification of main exposure determinants in vineyard mancozeb applicators","volume":"28","author":"Rubino","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/S1570-0232(02)00044-2","article-title":"Biological monitoring of pesticide exposure: A review of analytical methods","volume":"769","author":"Aprea","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2018.09.013","article-title":"Assessment of penconazole exposure in winegrowers using urinary biomarkers","volume":"168","author":"Mercadante","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2019.01.006","article-title":"Exposure duration and absorbed dose assessment in pesticide-exposed agricultural workers: Implications for risk assessment and modeling","volume":"222","author":"Rubino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2020.104689","article-title":"Establishing health-based biological exposure limits for pesticides: A proof of principle study using mancozeb","volume":"115","author":"Rubino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2005.09.031","article-title":"Reference values for ethylenethiourea in urine in Northern Italy: Results of a pilot study","volume":"162","author":"Colosio","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e36407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e36407","article-title":"Short occupational exposure to glyphosate and its biomonitoring via urinary levels of glyphosate and metabolite AMPA (Amino-MethylPhosphonic acid), in Italian vineyard workers","volume":"10","author":"Porru","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Cortesi, I. (2013). Chap. 4. Health risks in agriculture and their assessment. Chemical risk. Guidelines for the Health Surveillance in Agriculture; SIMLII, Nuova Editrice Berti. (In Italian)."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2012.82","article-title":"Levels and determinants of pesticide exposure in operators involved in treatment of vineyards: Results of the PESTEXPO Study","volume":"22","author":"Baldi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2014.14","article-title":"Biological monitoring of exposure to tebuconazole in winegrowers","volume":"24","author":"Fustinoni","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Expo Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"294","article-title":"Dermal exposure and risk assessment of tebuconazole applicators in vineyards","volume":"106","author":"Rubino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Lav."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tudi, M., Li, H., Li, H., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Yang, L., Tong, S., Yu, Q.J., Ruan, H.D., and Atabila, A. (2022). Exposure Routes and Health Risks Associated with Pesticide Application. Toxics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10060335"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.137794","article-title":"The use of a simple model for the regulatory environmental risk assessment of pesticides in Ethiopia","volume":"316","author":"Teklu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damalas, C.A., and Koutroubas, S.D. (2017). Farmers\u2019 Training on Pesticide Use Is Associated with Elevated Safety Behavior. Toxics, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics5030019"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s00244-004-0073-5","article-title":"Evaluation of Skin and Respiratory Doses and Urinary Excretion of Alkylphosphates in Workers Exposed to Dimethoate During Treatment of Olive Trees","volume":"48","author":"Aprea","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"345","article-title":"Pesticide residues on the external surfaces of field crop sprayers: Occupational exposure","volume":"49","author":"Ramwell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2005.06.015","article-title":"Applicator exposure to acetochlor based on biomonitoring","volume":"43","author":"Gustin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"87","article-title":"Personal protective equipment for registration purposes of pesticides","volume":"72","author":"Brouwer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Commun. Agric. Appl. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"69","article-title":"Exposure to Pesticides in Open-field Farming in France","volume":"53","author":"Lebailly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"573","article-title":"Dermal Exposure of Pesticide Applicators as a Measure of Coverall Performance Under Field Conditions","volume":"53","author":"Machera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Occup. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1177\/039463201302600226","article-title":"Evaluation by Environmental Monitoring of Pesticide Absorption in Farm Workers of 18 Italian Tomato Cultivations","volume":"26","author":"Basilicata","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.09.021","article-title":"Dermal & inhalation exposure of operators during fungicide application in vineyards. Evaluation of coverall performance","volume":"470","author":"Tsakirakis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2016.1143948","article-title":"Assessment of exposure to pesticides during mixing\/loading and spraying of tomatoes in the open field","volume":"13","author":"Aprea","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Occup. Environ. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1080\/10803548.2016.1195130","article-title":"Operator dermal exposure and protection provided by personal protective equipment and working coveralls during mixing\/loading, application and sprayer cleaning in vineyards","volume":"23","author":"Thouvenin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.11.127","article-title":"Assessment of exposure of professional agricultural operators to pesticides","volume":"619","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500443","article-title":"Pesticide contamination of workers in vineyards in France","volume":"16","author":"Baldi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/2\/89\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:35:43Z","timestamp":1759919743000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/2\/89"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13020089"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13020089","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]}}}