{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T13:14:02Z","timestamp":1787318042954,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745539200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NGO Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)","award":["446933\/2014-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["446933\/2014-7"]}]},{"name":"NGO Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)","award":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"]}]},{"name":"NGO Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)","award":["43246507\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["43246507\/2018"]}]},{"name":"NGO Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)","award":["41510004\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41510004\/2020"]}]},{"name":"National Council for Technological and Scientific Development","award":["446933\/2014-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["446933\/2014-7"]}]},{"name":"National Council for Technological and Scientific Development","award":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"]}]},{"name":"National Council for Technological and Scientific Development","award":["43246507\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["43246507\/2018"]}]},{"name":"National Council for Technological and Scientific Development","award":["41510004\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41510004\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro","award":["446933\/2014-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["446933\/2014-7"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro","award":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro","award":["43246507\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["43246507\/2018"]}]},{"name":"Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro","award":["41510004\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41510004\/2020"]}]},{"name":"United Nations International Children\u2019s Emergency Fund","award":["446933\/2014-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["446933\/2014-7"]}]},{"name":"United Nations International Children\u2019s Emergency Fund","award":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"]}]},{"name":"United Nations International Children\u2019s Emergency Fund","award":["43246507\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["43246507\/2018"]}]},{"name":"United Nations International Children\u2019s Emergency Fund","award":["41510004\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41510004\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Federal Deputy Jo\u00eania Wapichana","award":["446933\/2014-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["446933\/2014-7"]}]},{"name":"Federal Deputy Jo\u00eania Wapichana","award":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E-26\/201.028\/2017"]}]},{"name":"Federal Deputy Jo\u00eania Wapichana","award":["43246507\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["43246507\/2018"]}]},{"name":"Federal Deputy Jo\u00eania Wapichana","award":["41510004\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41510004\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Yanomami Indigenous Land (YIL) is heavily impacted by illegal gold mining, leading to significant contamination by methylmercury, a neurotoxin that poses severe risks to human health. The fetal brain is particularly susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury, which can result in mild mental retardation (MMR). The goal of this study was to estimate the burden of disease (BoD) associated with methylmercury exposure in the YIL and its economic implications. The BoD calculations followed World Health Organization (WHO) methodologies. To estimate the local BoD, hair samples were collected from women of childbearing age in the Waik\u00e1s, Mucaja\u00ed, Paapiu, and Maturac\u00e1 regions. For broader estimates, data from the scientific literature were used. The average hair methylmercury concentrations in these investigated regions were 6.21 \u00b5g\/g, 3.86 \u00b5g\/g, 3.53 \u00b5g\/g, and 2.96 \u00b5g\/g, respectively. The MMR incidence rate (IR) in children ranged from 2.08 to 4.47 per 1000 in these regions. The Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) per 1000 births varied from 24.8 to 53.4. In the Worst-Case Scenario, MMR-IR reached 9 per 1000, with DALYs per 1000 births rising to 109.6. The estimated economic impact of methylmercury exposure ranged from USD 716,750 to USD 3,153,700. This study is the first to quantify the MMR incidence due to mercury in the YIL, highlighting the severe threat posed by gold mining to the health and survival of the Yanomami people.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13050339","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T04:08:24Z","timestamp":1745554104000},"page":"339","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Burden of Disease Attributed to Prenatal Methylmercury Exposure in the Yanomami Indigenous Land"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ana Claudia Santiago","family":"de Vasconcellos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Professional Education in Health Surveillance, Joaquim Ven\u00e2ncio Polytechnic Health School, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rua Leopoldo Bulh\u00f5es 1480, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9323-6298","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raiane Fontes","family":"de Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Professional Education in Health Surveillance, Joaquim Ven\u00e2ncio Polytechnic Health School, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rua Leopoldo Bulh\u00f5es 1480, Rio de Janeiro 21041-210, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcos Wesley","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rio Negro Program, Socio-Environmental Institute (ISA)\u2014P\u00e7. Dom Jos\u00e9 Gaspar, 134 (12th Floor), S\u00e3o Paulo 01047-912, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0804-0413","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo Cesar","family":"Basta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endemic Diseases Samuel Pessoa, National School of Public Health, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rua Leopoldo Bulh\u00f5es 1480, Rio de Janeiro 21041-21, RJ, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106223","article-title":"Mercury: What can we learn from the Amazon?","volume":"146","author":"Takeda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"367","article-title":"Mercury levels in Yanomami Indians hair from Roraima-Brazil","volume":"1","author":"Castro","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. Conf. Heavy Met. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mastel, M., Bussalleu, A., Paz-Sold\u00e1n, V.A., Salm\u00f3n-Mulanovich, G., Vald\u00e9s-Vel\u00e1squez, A., and Hartinger, S.M. (2018). Critical linkages between land use change and human health in the Amazon region: A scoping review. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0196414"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basta, P.C., Viana, P.V.S., Vasconcellos, A.C.S., P\u00e9riss\u00e9, A.R.S., Hofer, C.B., Paiva, N.S., Kempton, J.W., Ciampi de Andrade, D., Oliveira, R.A.A., and Achatz, R.W. (2021). Mercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Communities from Brazilian Amazon: Methodological Background and an Overview of the Principal Results. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18179222"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Canela, T.A., Monteiro, L.C., Cabral, C.D.S., Ximenes, F.D.S., Oliveira, I.A.D.S., Bernardi, J.V.E., and Bastos, W.R. (2024). Mercury in fish and human hair and estimated dietary intake in a riverside community of the Madeira River Basin in the Brazilian Amazon. Toxics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics12030208"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1007\/s10646-024-02847-8","article-title":"Cascade reservoirs affect mercury concentrations in fish from Teles Pires river, Brazilian Amazon","volume":"34","author":"Oliveira","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70278-3","article-title":"Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity","volume":"13","author":"Grandjean","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3535","DOI":"10.1590\/1413-812320182311.15812016","article-title":"Burden of Mild Mental Retardation attributed to prenatal methylmercury exposure in Amazon: Local and regional estimates","volume":"11","author":"Vasconcellos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cien Saude Colet."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.2223\/1230","article-title":"Retardo mental [Mental retardation]","volume":"80","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Poulin, J., Gibb, H., and Pr\u00fcss-\u00dcst\u00fcn, A. (2008). Mercury: Assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels. Environ. Burd. Dis. Ser."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1201534","article-title":"Measuring the Global Burden of Disease","volume":"369","author":"Murray","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robortella, D.R., Calvet, A.A., Amaral, L.C., Fantin, R.F., Guimar\u00e3es, L.F.F., Fran\u00e7a Dias, M.H., Brito, C.F.A., Sousa, T.N., Herzog, M.M., and Oliveira-Ferreira, J. (2020). Prospective assessment of malaria infection in a semi-isolated Amazonian indigenous Yanomami community: Transmission heterogeneity and predominance of submicroscopic infection. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230643"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2025, March 03). Boletim Yanomami 2023, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.br\/secom\/pt-br\/assuntos\/noticias\/2023\/03\/boletim-yanomami-13mar23#:~:text=A%20Terra%20Ind%C3%ADgena%20Yanomami%20(TIY,em%20cerca%20de%20384%20aldeias."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2008). Guidance for Identifying Populations at Risk from Mercury Exposure, WHO."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1080\/10408440600845619","article-title":"The Toxicology of Mercury and Its Chemical Compounds","volume":"36","author":"Clarkson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-4-20","article-title":"Inter-individual variations of human mercury exposure biomarkers: A cross-sectional assessment","volume":"4","author":"Berglund","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vega, C., Orellana, J., Oliveira, M., Hacon, S., and Basta, P. (2018). Human Mercury Exposure in Yanomami Indigenous Villages from the Brazilian Amazon. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15061051"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rebou\u00e7as, B.H., Kubota, G.T., Oliveira, R.A.A., Pinto, B.D., Cardoso, R.M., Vasconcellos, A.C.S., and Basta, P.C. (2024). Long-Term Environmental Methylmercury Exposure Is Associated with Peripheral Neuropathy and Cognitive Impairment among an Amazon Indigenous Population. Toxics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics12030212"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9303","article-title":"Dose\u2013Response Relationship of Prenatal Mercury Exposure and IQ: An Integrative Analysis of Epidemiologic Data","volume":"115","author":"Axelrad","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5491\/SHAW.2013.4.1.1","article-title":"Prenatal Exposures to Environmental Chemicals and Children\u2019s Neurodevelopment: An Update","volume":"4","author":"Bellinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Saf. Health Work."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2016.08.058","article-title":"Economic implications of mercury exposure in the context of the global mercury treaty: Hair mercury levels and estimated lost economic productivity in selected developing countries","volume":"183","author":"Trasande","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7743","article-title":"Public Health and Economic Consequences of Methyl Mercury Toxicity to the Developing Brain","volume":"113","author":"Trasande","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9797","article-title":"A Comparison of the Monetized Impact of IQ Decrements from Mercury Emissions","volume":"115","author":"Griffiths","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Bosworth, R., Hunter, A., and Kibria, A. (2017). The Value of a Statistical Life: Economics and Politics, STRATA."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"The World Health Organization\u2014W.H.O (2001). Macroeconomics and health: Investing in health for economic development. Report of the Comission on Macroeconomics and Health, WHO."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2025, March 03). Ag\u00eancia IBGE Not\u00edcias 2024 March, Available online: https:\/\/agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br\/agencia-sala-de-imprensa\/2013-agencia-de-noticias\/releases\/39303-pib-cresce-2-9-em-2023-e-fecha-o-ano-em-r-10-9-trilhoes#:~:text=O%20PIB%20per%20capita%20alcan%C3%A7ou,%2C8%25%20de%202022."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1579\/0044-7447-32.7.434","article-title":"Organic Mercury Levels among the Yanomama of the Brazilian Amazon Basin","volume":"32","author":"Sing","year":"2003","journal-title":"AMBIO A J. Hum. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lackner, J., Weiss, M., M\u00fcller-Graf, C., and Greiner, M. (2018). Disease burden of methylmercury in the German birth cohort 2014. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0190409"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacques, A.D., Furutani de Oliveira, M.A., da Silva, M.C., Hofer, C.B., and Basta, P.C. (2024). Clinical, Laboratory and Neurodevelopmental Findings in Children from the Yanomami-Ninam Population Chronically Exposed to Methylmercury. Toxics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics12030193"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tinggi, U., and Perkins, A.V. (2022). Selenium status: Its interactions with dietary mercury exposure and implications in human health. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14245308"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envadv.2023.100450","article-title":"The effect of selenium co-ingestion on mercury bioaccessibility in contaminated fish of the Amazon region","volume":"14","author":"Oliveira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Adv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114086","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2024.114086","article-title":"Selenium and mercury concentration, Se\/Hg molar ratio and risk\u2013benefit assessment of marine fish consumption: Human health risks and protective role of Se against Hg toxicity","volume":"180","author":"Arisekar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/5\/339\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:21:10Z","timestamp":1760030470000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/5\/339"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13050339"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13050339","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]}}}