{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T19:38:59Z","timestamp":1792006739755,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) \u2265 100 \u00b5g\/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd \u2265 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd between 10 and 15 \u00b5g\/day and excretion of Cd at a rate below 0.5 \u00b5g\/g creatinine have been associated with an increased risk of diseases with a high prevalence worldwide, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), fragile bones, diabetes, and cancer. These findings have cast considerable doubt on a \u201ctolerable\u201d Cd exposure level of 58 \u00b5g\/day for a 70 kg person, while questioning the threshold level for the Cd excretion rate of 5.24 \u00b5g\/g creatinine. The present review addresses many unmet challenges in a threshold-based risk assessment for Cd. Special emphasis is given to the benchmark dose (BMD) methodology to estimate the Cd exposure limit that aligns with a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL). Cd exposure limits estimated from conventional dosing experiments and human data are highlighted. The results of the BMDL modeling of the relationship between Cd excretion and various indicators of its effects on kidneys are summarized. It is recommended that exposure guidelines for Cd should employ the most recent scientific research data, dose\u2013response curves constructed from an unbiased exposure indicator, and clinically relevant adverse effects such as proteinuria, albuminuria, and a decrease in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). These are signs of developing CKD and its progression to the end stage, when dialysis or a kidney transplant is required for survival.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13050404","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T09:30:38Z","timestamp":1747387838000},"page":"404","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Challenges in Toxicological Risk Assessment of Environmental Cadmium Exposure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Soisungwan","family":"Satarug","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Nordberg, G., and Costa, M. (2022). 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