{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,26]],"date-time":"2026-04-26T11:27:25Z","timestamp":1777202845315,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]],"date-time":"2025-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Kocaeli University","award":["FDK-2020-2178"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FDK-2020-2178"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The seasonal variations, spatial distribution, and health risk assessment of 13 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particularly benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene (BTEX), in the ambient air of Dilovas\u0131, a Turkish city with unplanned urbanization, are presented in this study. Using passive tube sampling, at 22 locations in Dilovas\u0131, air samples were collected separately for the summer and winter, and concentrations were measured using thermal desorption GC-MS. Pollution maps were created using the Golden Software Surfer program and QGIS Desktop 3.42.0 software program. A health risk evaluation was conducted using the US Environmental Protection Agency\u2019s (USEPA) approach. The study\u2019s findings demonstrated that the atmospheric VOC concentrations at the sampling locations varied significantly by season and location. According to a carcinogenic risk assessment, residents in this area may be more susceptible to cancer if they are exposed to benzene, ethylbenzene, and naphthalene over an extended period. A non-carcinogenic risk (HQ) evaluation determined that while there was no significant risk at 21 measurement points, there was a substantial risk for non-cancer health effects at 1 measurement point. The significance of regulatory policies and pollution control technologies has once again emerged in this context.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13070540","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T13:06:17Z","timestamp":1751288777000},"page":"540","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Ambient Air VOC Levels in an Industrial Area of Turkey: Levels, Spatial Distribution, and Health Risk Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Aykan","family":"Karademir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kocaeli University, 41001 Kocaeli, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6309-5356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ercan","family":"Arpaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kocaeli University, 41001 Kocaeli, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5968-2948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u015eenay","family":"\u00c7etin Do\u011fruparmak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kocaeli University, 41001 Kocaeli, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00fcls\u00fcn","family":"\u00d6zg\u00fcl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Protection Technologies, Environmental Protection and Control Program, Kocaeli University Izmit Vocational School, 41285 Kocaeli, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.07.122","article-title":"Assessment of occupational exposure to BTEX compounds at a bus diesel-refueling bay: A case study in Johannesburg, South Africa","volume":"537","author":"Moolla","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2024.120982","article-title":"Investigation of priority anthropogenic VOCs in the large industrial city of Ulsan, South Korea, focusing on their levels, risks, and secondary formation potential","volume":"343","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.177568","article-title":"Pollution investigation of wintertime VOCs in the coastal atmosphere of the Yellow Sea: Insights from on-line photoionization-induced CI-TOFMS","volume":"957","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155861","article-title":"Traffic, transport, and vegetation drive VOC concentrations in a major urban area in Texas","volume":"838","author":"Shrestha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2021.100997","article-title":"BTEX and formaldehyde levels at a suburban site of Agra: Temporal variation, ozone formation potential and health risk assessment","volume":"40","author":"Kumari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2016.09.067","article-title":"Inhalation exposure and related health risks of BTEX in ambient air at different microenvironments of a terai zone in north India","volume":"147","author":"Masih","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2016.02.042","article-title":"Preliminary assessment of BTEX concentrations in indoor air of residential buildings and atmospheric ambient air in Ardabil, Iran","volume":"132","author":"Hazrati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2024.100990","article-title":"Investigation of models predicting NOx level in the sample region and the use of intelligent transportation system","volume":"16","author":"Beba","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1038\/s41612-024-00598-1","article-title":"One-third of global population at cancer risk due to elevated volatile organic compounds levels","volume":"7","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Clim. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2025.144432","article-title":"Assessment of the presence and risk associated with volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in urban areas close to petrochemical parks","volume":"379","author":"Vallecillos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.11.033","article-title":"Quantification of emissions from domestic heating in residential areas of \u0130zmir, Turkey and assessment of the impact on local\/regional air-quality","volume":"488\u2013489","author":"Sari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"2951","article-title":"Characterization of ambient volatile organic compounds and their diurnal variations in Istanbul, Turkey","volume":"20","author":"Demir","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fresenius Environ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2019.02.006","article-title":"Levels, temporal\/spatial variations and sources of PAHs and PCBs in soil of a highly industrialized area","volume":"10","author":"Yurdakul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.07.299","article-title":"Spatio-temporal variations of atmospheric and soil polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in highly industrialized region of Dilovasi","volume":"646","author":"Cetin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.03.145","article-title":"Source apportionment and carcinogenic risk assessment of passive air sampler-derived PAHs and PCBs in a heavily industrialized region","volume":"633","author":"Cetin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4986-2","article-title":"Assessment of impact of environmental pollution on groundwater and surface water qualities in a heavily industrialized district of Kocaeli (Dilovas\u0131), Turkey","volume":"75","author":"Yolcubal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-015-1506-8","article-title":"Spatial distribution and temporal trends of VOCs in a highly industrialized town in Turkey","volume":"94","author":"Ergenekon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2012.12.006","article-title":"Chemometric evaluation of the heavy metals distribution in waters from the Dilovasi region in Kocaeli, Turkey","volume":"68","author":"Ay","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2010.09.006","article-title":"The use of passive sampling to monitor spatial trends of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at an industrial city of Turkey","volume":"97","author":"Pekey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2011.06.005","article-title":"Multivariate methods for ground-level ozone modeling","volume":"102","author":"Keskin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2011.04.004","article-title":"Heavy metal contamination of surface soil around Gebze industrial area, Turkey","volume":"99","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1999","article-title":"Environmental air levels of volatile organic compounds by thermal desorption-gas chromatography in an industrial region env\u0131ronmental a\u0131r levels of volat\u0131le organ\u0131c compounds by thermal desorp-t\u0131on-gas chromatography \u0131n an \u0131ndustr\u0131al reg\u0131on","volume":"18","author":"Ergenekon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fresenius Environ. Bull."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2025, March 31). Population, Dilovas\u0131 Population. Available online: https:\/\/www.nufusu.com\/ilce\/dilovasi_kocaeli-nufusu."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2024, January 15). Google Earth. Available online: https:\/\/earth.google.com\/."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA (2025, February 20). Compendium Method TO-17, Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Ambient Air Using Active Sampling Onto Sorbent Tubes, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-11\/documents\/to-17r.pdf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-024-02701-w","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds and cancer risk assessment in an intensive care unit","volume":"68","author":"Lakestani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA (2025, February 20). IRIS Agenda, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/iris\/iris-agenda."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Risk Assessment Information System [RAIS] (2025, February 20). Toxicity Profile, Available online: http:\/\/rais.ornl.gov."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"US. Environmental Protection Agency (2009). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part F, Supplemental Guidance for Inhalation Risk Assessment)."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"SCHER\/SCCP\/SCENIHR (2025, June 14). Scientific Opinion on the Risk Assessment Methodologies and Approaches for Genotoxic and Carcinogenic Substances, January 2009. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/health\/ph_risk\/committees\/04_scher\/docs\/scher_o_113.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Health Canada (2021). Cancer Risk Assessment Methodology a Survey of Current Practices at Health Canada, Health Canada. Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/health-canada\/services\/publications\/science-research-data\/cancer-risk-assessment-methodology-survey-current-practices.html#a21."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"117","article-title":"Occupational exposure of gasoline station workers to BTEX compounds in Bangkok, Thailand","volume":"3","author":"Tunsaringkarn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ministry of Transport, General Directorate of Highways (2025, March 10). Traffic Flow Characteristics and Traffic Parameters of State Roads, Available online: https:\/\/www.kgm.gov.tr\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/KGMdocuments\/Yayinlar\/YayinPdf\/Devlet%20Yollar%C4%B1%20Trafik%20Ak%C4%B1m%C4%B1%20%C3%96zellikleri%20ve%20Trafik%20Parametreleri.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"43","article-title":"Evaluation of dilovas\u0131 air pollution in terms of traffic emissions","volume":"3","author":"Toros","year":"2020","journal-title":"Natl. J. Environ. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2015.04.027","article-title":"Temporal and spatial variability of trace volatile organic compounds in rainwater","volume":"134","author":"Mullaugh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Meteoblue (2025, June 14). Simulated Historical Climate and Weather Data for Dilovasi. Available online: https:\/\/www.meteoblue.com\/tr\/hava\/historyclimate\/climatemodelled\/dilovasi_t%C3%BCrkiye-cumhuriyeti_9965495?utm_source."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Ma\u011fat T\u00fcrk, E. (2019). Spatial Monitoring of Gaseous Pollutants in the City Center of Bolu by Passive Sampling Method. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Department Of Chemistry, the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75989","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-27889-z","article-title":"Assessment of health risk and burden of disease induced by exposure to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene in the outdoor air in Tehran, Iran","volume":"30","author":"Hosseini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khoshakhlagh, A.S., Yazdanirad, S., Mousavi, M., Gruszecka-Kosowska, A., Shahriyari, M., and Rajabi-Vardanjani, H. (2023). Summer and winter variations of BTEX concentrations in an oil refinery complex and health risk assessment based on Monte-Carlo simulations. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-37647-3"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2023.101545","article-title":"Characteristics of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at an urban site of Delhi, India: Diurnal and seasonal variation, sources apportionment","volume":"49","author":"Mandal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scenv.2025.100227","article-title":"Characterization of BTEX species at Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) Continuous Ambient Monitoring Station (CAMS) sites in Houston, Texas, USA during 2018","volume":"9","author":"Raysoni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-015-0313-z","article-title":"Evaluation of seasonal variations in abundance of BTXE hydrocarbons and their ozone forming potential in ambient urban atmosphere of Dehradun (India)","volume":"9","author":"Bauri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Air Qual. Atmos. Health"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Turkish Statistical Institute (2025, February 20). Distribution of Registered Cars According to Fuel Type, Available online: https:\/\/data.tuik.gov.tr\/Bulten\/Index?p=Motorlu-Kara-Tasitlari-Nisan-2024-53456#:~:text=Nisan%20ay%C4%B1%20sonu%20itibar%C4%B1yla%20trafi%C4%9Fe%20kay%C4%B1tl%C4%B1%2015%20milyon%20562%20bin,%250%2C2."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.4236\/jep.2016.75060","article-title":"Seasonal and Spatial Variation of BTEX in Ambient Air of Delhi","volume":"07","author":"Singh","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2005.10.045","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds in ambient air of Mumbai\u2014India","volume":"40","author":"Srivastavaa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"1","article-title":"Source identification of volatile organic compounds and particulate matters in an urban and industrial areas of Turkey","volume":"24","author":"Pekey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ekoloji"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2023.101878","article-title":"Study on spatiotemporal distribution and health risk assessment of BTEX in urban ambient air of Kolkata and Howrah, West Bengal, India: Evaluation of carcinogenic, non-carcinogenic and additional leukaemia cases","volume":"14","author":"Ghosh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atmos. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsai, J.H., Lu, Y.T., Chung, I.I., and Chiang, H.L. (2020). Traffic-related airborne VOC profiles variation on road sites and residential area within a microscale in urban area in Southern Taiwan. Atmosphere, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11091015"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28718","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-24138-7","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds in ambient air of a major Asian port: Spatiotemporal variation and source apportionment","volume":"30","author":"Le","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Legislation Information System of the Republic of Turkey (2025, April 20). National Air Quality Assessment and Management Regulation, Date 09\/09\/13 and Number 31677, Available online: https:\/\/www.mevzuat.gov.tr\/mevzuat?MevzuatNo=12188&MevzuatTur=7&MevzuatTertip=5."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Buckpitt, A., Kephalopoulos, S., Koistinen, K., Kotzias, D., Morawska, L., and Sagunski, H. (2025, May 01). Naphthalene, WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK138704\/."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamal, A., Qayyum, M., Cheema, I.U., and Rashid, A. (2011). Biological Monitoring of Blood Naphthalene Levels as a Marker of Occupational Exposure to PAHs among Auto-Mechanics and Spray Painters in Rawalpindi. BMC Public Health, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-11-467"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2020.117294","article-title":"On-road tailpipe emission characteristics and ozone formation potentials of VOCs from gasoline, diesel and liquefied petroleum gas fueled vehicles","volume":"223","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"106438","article-title":"Health effects of naphthalene exposure: A systematic evidence map and analysis of potential considerations for dose\u2013response evaluation","volume":"150","author":"Yost","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/7\/540\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:00:30Z","timestamp":1760032830000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/7\/540"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13070540"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13070540","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6304","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]]}}}