{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T14:58:26Z","timestamp":1791557906529,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Efficient new methods are needed to support initiatives to reduce, refine, and\/or replace toxicity testing in vertebrates. 5-fluorouracil (5FU), hydroxyurea (HU), and ribavirin (RV) are mammalian teratogens. Skeletal, endocrine organ, and cardiac effects are often associated with teratogenesis, and a simple nematode like C. elegans lacks these systems. However, many genetic pathways required for mammalian morphogenesis have at least some conserved elements in this small, invertebrate model. The C. elegans lifecycle is 3 days. The effects of 5FU, HU, and RV on the C. elegans morphology were evaluated on day 4 post-initiation of the feeding after hatching for continuous and 24 h (early-only) developmental exposures. Continuous exposures to 5FU and HU induced increases in the incidences of abnormal gonadal structures that were significantly reduced in early-only exposure groups. The incidence of prolapse increased with continuous 5FU and HU exposures and was further increased in early-only exposure groups. Intestinal prolapse through the vulval muscle in C. elegans may be related to reported 5FU and HU effects on skeletal muscle and the gastrointestinal tract in mammals. Continuous RV exposures induced a phenotype lacking a uterus and gonad arms, as well as vulval anomalies that were largely, but not completely, reversed with early-only exposures, which is consistent with reported reversible reproductive tract anomalies after an RV exposure in mammals. These findings suggest that C. elegans can be used to detect the hazard risk from chemicals that adversely affect conserved pathways involved in organismal morphogenesis, but to determine the fit-for-purpose use of this model in chemical safety evaluations, further studies using larger and more diverse chemical test panels are needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13070589","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,15]],"date-time":"2025-07-15T09:45:52Z","timestamp":1752572752000},"page":"589","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Developmental Exposures to Three Mammalian Teratogens Produce Dysmorphic Phenotypes in Adult Caenorhabditis elegans"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0538-7606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piper Reid","family":"Hunt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Human Foods Program, Office of Chemistry and Toxicology, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martine","family":"Ferguson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Human Foods Program, Office of Surveillance Strategy & Risk Prioritization, Division of Surveillance & Data Integration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Olejnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Human Foods Program, Office of Chemistry and Toxicology, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Yourick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Human Foods Program, Office of Chemistry and Toxicology, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert L.","family":"Sprando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Human Foods Program, Office of Chemistry and Toxicology, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"55","article-title":"Species sensitivities and prediction of teratogenic potential","volume":"61","author":"Schardein","year":"1985","journal-title":"Environ. 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