{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:39:50Z","timestamp":1792100390115,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]],"date-time":"2025-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754611200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"teaching research and reform project of Zhejiang University of Science and Technology","award":["2023-jg18"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023-jg18"]}]},{"name":"teaching research and reform project of Zhejiang University of Science and Technology","award":["42177380"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42177380"]}]},{"name":"teaching research and reform project of Zhejiang University of Science and Technology","award":["RETWB-2024-X"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RETWB-2024-X"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023-jg18"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023-jg18"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42177380"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42177380"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["RETWB-2024-X"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RETWB-2024-X"]}]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass of Zhejiang Province","award":["2023-jg18"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023-jg18"]}]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass of Zhejiang Province","award":["42177380"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42177380"]}]},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass of Zhejiang Province","award":["RETWB-2024-X"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RETWB-2024-X"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As emerging pollutants, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have been recognized as originating from diverse sources. Among these, the use of livestock feed and veterinary drugs was identified as the primary source of ARGs in livestock manure. ARGs were found to be widely distributed in global environments, particularly in agriculture-related soils, water bodies, and the atmosphere, posing potential threats to ecological environments and human health. This paper reviewed the degradation mechanisms of ARGs during aerobic composting of livestock manure and the safety evaluation of compost products. Aerobic composting was demonstrated to be an effective method for degrading ARGs, primarily through mechanisms such as high-temperature elimination of ARG-carrying microorganisms, reduction in host bacterial abundance, and inhibition of horizontal gene transfer. Factors including the physicochemical properties of the composting substrate, the use of additives, and the presence of antibiotic and heavy metal residues were shown to influence the degradation efficiency of ARGs, with compost temperature being the core factor. The safety of organic fertilizers encompassed multiple aspects, including heavy metal content, seed germination index, and risk assessments based on ARG residues. The analysis indicated that deficiencies existed in areas such as the persistence of thermotolerant bacteria carrying ARGs, the dissemination of extracellular antibiotic resistance genes (eARGs), and virus-mediated gene transfer. Future research should focus on (1) the removal of thermotolerant bacteria harboring ARGs; (2) the decomposition of eARGs or the blocking of their transmission pathways; (3) the optimization of ultra-high temperature composting parameters; and (4) the analysis of interactions between viruses and resistant hosts. This study reviews the mechanisms, influencing factors, and safety assessment of aerobic composting for degrading ARGs in livestock manure. It not only deepens the understanding of this important environmental biotechnology process but also provides a crucial knowledge base and practical guidance for effectively controlling ARG pollution, ensuring agricultural environmental safety, and protecting public health. Additionally, it clearly outlines the key paths for future technological optimization, thus holding significant implications for the environment, agriculture, and public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13080667","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]],"date-time":"2025-08-08T13:20:09Z","timestamp":1754659209000},"page":"667","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["A Review on the Degradation of Antibiotic Resistance Genes During Composting of Livestock Manure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Enwang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment and Natural Resources, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8973-3013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongchao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment and Natural Resources, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment and Natural Resources, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bing","family":"Geng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3435","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1222743110","article-title":"Diverse and abundant antibiotic resistance genes in Chinese swine farms","volume":"110","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. 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