{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:38:40Z","timestamp":1760060320693,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,16]],"date-time":"2025-08-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Environment\u2019s Chemical Accident Prediction and Prevention Advancement Technology Development Project","award":["2022003620002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022003620002"]}]},{"name":"Graduate School Support Program for Chemical Substance Specialization","award":["2022003620002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022003620002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Conventional health risk assessments do not adequately reflect short-term exposure characteristics following chemical accidents. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of existing assessment methods and propose a more suitable risk assessment approach for short-term exposure to hazardous chemicals. We analyzed foundational studies used to derive reference concentration (RfC), reference dose (RfD), and minimal risk level (MRL) values and applied these health guidance values (HGVs) to a hypothetical chemical accident scenario. An analysis of the studies underlying each HGV revealed that, except for the RfC for formaldehyde and the RfD for toluene, all values were derived under research conditions comparable to their respective exposure durations. Given the differing toxicity mechanisms between acute and chronic exposures, MRLs that were aligned with the corresponding exposure durations supported more appropriate risk management decisions. The health risk assessment results showed that RfC\/RfD-based hazard quotients (HQs) were consistently higher than MRL-based HQs across all age groups and both substances, indicating that RfC\/RfD values tend to yield more conservative risk estimates. For formaldehyde, the use of RfC instead of MRL resulted in an additional 208 tiles (2.08 km2) being classified as areas of potential concern (HQ &gt; 1) relative to the MRL-based evaluation. These findings highlighted that the selection of HGVs can significantly influence the spatial extent of areas of potential concern, potentially altering health risk determinations for large population groups. This study provides a scientific basis for improving exposure and risk assessment frameworks under short-term exposure conditions. It also serves as valuable foundational data for developing effective and rational risk management strategies during actual chemical accidents. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to apply MRLs to a short-term chemical accident scenario and directly compare them with traditional reference values.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13080683","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]],"date-time":"2025-08-18T15:34:53Z","timestamp":1755531293000},"page":"683","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Health Risk Assessment of Toluene and Formaldehyde Based on a Short-Term Exposure Scenario: A Comparison of the Reference Concentration, Reference Dose, and Minimal Risk Level"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-8954-9148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ji-Eun","family":"Moon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8578-9060","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Si-Hyun","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1526-5713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Young-Hyun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5367-0490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyeok","family":"Jang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8455-3442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ji-Yun","family":"Jung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7957-2172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sung-Won","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2276-2463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheol-Min","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Seokyeong University, 124, Seogyeong-ro, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 02713, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Choi, J.U. (2020). Re-evaluation of the Impact Range Considering Decomposition Products in the Event of Chemical Accidents Involving Nitric Acid Leakage. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Graduate School of Industry Kumoh National Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"59","article-title":"Improvement on accident statistic analysis and response of hazardous chemical transport vehicle","volume":"14","author":"Jeon","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Soc. Disaster Inf."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"69","article-title":"Chemical accident response information systems improvement risk assessment research, Korean","volume":"1","author":"Chun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9712","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-11403-w","article-title":"Health risk assessment for multimedia exposure of formaldehyde emitted by chemical accident","volume":"28","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"National Research Council (1983). Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (1994). Methods for Derivation of Inhalation Reference Concentrations and Application of Inhalation Dosimetry."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2002). A Review of the Reference Dose and Reference Concentration Processes."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2025, June 25). About Minimal Risk Levels, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/minimal-risk-levels\/php\/about\/?CDC_AAref_Val=https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/mrls\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Ministry of the Environment (MoE) (2025, June 25). Designation of Substances Requiring Accident Preparedness, Available online: https:\/\/www.law.go.kr\/%ED%96%89%EC%A0%95%EA%B7%9C%EC%B9%99\/%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80%EB%B9%84%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%88%EC%9D%98%EC%A7%80%EC%A0%95."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2017). Toxicological Profile for Toluene."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2024). Chemistry, Fate, and Transport Assessment for Formaldehyde CASRN 50-00-0."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"National Institute of Chemical Safety (NICS) (2025, June 25). Current Status and Cases of Chemical Accidents, Available online: https:\/\/icis.me.go.kr\/search\/searchType2.do."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Lee, Y.A., Kim, H.S., and Lee, D.S. (2019). Evaluation Using A Multimedia Fate and Transport Model of Surface Water Pollution Potential of Organic Chemicals Accidentally Release into Air During A Rainfall Event, SETAC."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s44273-024-00039-8","article-title":"Aggregate risk assessment for multi-route exposure to hazardous chemicals caused by chemical accidents, with a focus on toluene","volume":"18","author":"Jung","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian J. Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, H.J., Park, S.H., Lim, H.B., and Lee, C.M. (2020). Development on health risk assessment method for multi-media exposure of hazardous chemical by chemical accident. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17103385"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) (2011). Multi-Media and Multi-Pathway Aggregate Risk Aassessment (I)-Toluene-, Ministry of Environment."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) (2012). Multi-Media and Multi-Pathway Aggregate Risk Assessment (\u2161)-Formaldehyde-, Ministry of Environment."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2005). Toxicological Review of Toluene (CAS No. 108-88-3) in Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2024). IRIS Toxicological Review of Formaldehyde (Inhalation) CASRN 50-00-0, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1999). Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (1991). IRIS Summary of Formaldehyde (Noncancer, 1991)."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Hong, H.J., Kong, H.K., Park, S.H., Yoon, D.K., Lim, H.B., Namgoung, S.J., and Lee, C.M. (2019, January 7\u20139). Health Risk Assessment of Hazardous Chemicals from Soil Ingestion in Chemical Accident. Proceedings of the Korea Environmental Sciences Society Conference, JESI, Gyeongju City, Repulic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) (2019). Korean Exposure Factors Handbook for Children, Ministry of Environment."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) (2019). Korean Exposure Factors Handbook, Ministry of Environment."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2017). Update for Chapter 5 of the Exposure Factors Handbook-Soil and Dust Ingestion)."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"95","article-title":"A study on the prediction of hazardous substance concentration in the indoor space by indoor inflow of chemical accident material","volume":"27","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Environ. Sci. Soc."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) (2025, June 25). Regulation on Specific Methods of Chemical Risk Assessment, Available online: https:\/\/www.law.go.kr\/%ED%96%89%EC%A0%95%EA%B7%9C%EC%B9%99\/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%88%EC%9C%84%ED%95%B4%EC%84%B1%ED%8F%89%EA%B0%80%EC%9D%98%EA%B5%AC%EC%B2%B4%EC%A0%81%EB%B0%A9%EB%B2%95%EB%93%B1%EC%97%90%EA%B4%80%ED%95%9C%EA%B7%9C%EC%A0%95."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1080\/00039899909602230","article-title":"Clinical and immunological responses in subjects sensitive to solvents","volume":"54","author":"Little","year":"1999","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(05)80247-6","article-title":"Chronic respiratory effects of indoor formaldehyde exposure","volume":"52","author":"Krzyzanowski","year":"1990","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.58.11.955","article-title":"Effects of volatile organic compounds, damp, and other environmental exposures in the home on wheezing illness in children","volume":"58","author":"Venn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2011-200391","article-title":"Poor air quality in classrooms related to asthma and rhinitis in primary schoolchildren of the French 6 Cities Study","volume":"67","author":"Hulin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00381101","article-title":"Changes in nasal lavage fluid due to formaldehyde inhalation","volume":"64","author":"Pazdrak","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(83)90276-4","article-title":"A 26-week inhalation toxicity study with formaldehyde in the monkey, rat, and hamster","volume":"68","author":"Rusch","year":"1983","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.3109\/00016488909127488","article-title":"Histological changes in the nasal mucosa in persons occupationally exposed to formaldehyde alone and in combination with wood dust","volume":"107","author":"Wilhelmsson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Acta OtoLaryngol."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"National Toxicology Program (1990). NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of toluene (CAS No. 108-88-3) in F344\/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (inhalation studies). Natl. Toxicol. Program Tech. Rep. Ser., 371, 1\u2013253."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(88)90079-7","article-title":"Acute exposures to p-xylene and toluene alter visual information processing","volume":"10","author":"Dyer","year":"1988","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(89)80024-6","article-title":"Immunotoxicological evaluation of toluene exposure via drinking water in mice","volume":"49","author":"Hsieh","year":"1989","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01972993","article-title":"Subclinical effects of groundwater contaminants: III. Effects of repeated oral exposure to combinations of benzene and toluene on immunologic responses in mice","volume":"64","author":"Hsieh","year":"1990","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-3109(91)90004-I","article-title":"Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity and immune function after oral exposure to benzene and toluene","volume":"21","author":"Hsieh","year":"1991","journal-title":"Immunopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-6915(89)90001-X","article-title":"Two-year drinking-water study of formaldehyde in rats","volume":"27","author":"Til","year":"1989","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-6915(88)90056-7","article-title":"Evaluation of the oral toxicity of acetaldehyde and formaldehyde in a 4-week drinking-water study in rats","volume":"26","author":"Til","year":"1988","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/0273-2300(88)90047-5","article-title":"Reference dose (RfD): Description and use in health risk assessments","volume":"8","author":"Barnes","year":"1988","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Casarett, L.J., Doull, J., and Klaassen, C.D. (2008). Casarett and Doull\u2019s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Ministry of Interior and Safety (MOIS) (2024). Status of Administrative Divisions and Population of Local Governments."}],"container-title":["Toxics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/8\/683\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:29:14Z","timestamp":1760034554000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6304\/13\/8\/683"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,16]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["toxics13080683"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxics13080683","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6304"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2305-6304"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,16]]}}}