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Their persistence and relevant toxicity are the primary causes of environmental and human health concerns, and they are referred to as \u201cforever chemicals\u201d because of their persistence. Environmental accumulation caused by slow natural biodegradation and subsequent long environmental half-lives leads to bioaccumulation and makes PFAS more likely to be chronically toxic with potential transgenerational effects. Ultimately, it is this persistence that causes the greatest concern because PFAS-contaminated sites need costly remediation techniques, or else the contaminated areas will not be available for proper economic development because of social and economic suppression. Non-PFAS, alternative Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF) that are considered environmentally friendly, are being heavily considered or currently used for fire suppression instead of PFAS-based products. The bioaccumulation and toxicity of alternative AFFF are just starting to be studied. The purpose of this review is to discuss the basic environmental and human health effects of PFAS and alternative AFFF that propel regulatory changes, increase clean-up costs, reduce economic development, and drive the development of novel alternatives.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics13090732","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T13:01:13Z","timestamp":1756818073000},"page":"732","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Toxicological, Chemical, Social, and Economic Challenges Associated with PFAS and Replacement Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFF)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9491-3403","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William S.","family":"Baldwin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0028-5494","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael S.","family":"Bloom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7528-3445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katy W.","family":"Chung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Ocean Service, Charleston, SC 29412, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Subham","family":"Dasgupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie E.","family":"DeLorenzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Ocean Service, Charleston, SC 29412, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8999-3587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kelly J.","family":"Hunt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7276-6799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter B.","family":"Key","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Ocean Service, Charleston, SC 29412, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7343-4112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John L.","family":"Pearce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2954-1110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kylie D.","family":"Rock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip","family":"Tanabe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Ocean Service, Charleston, SC 29412, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6656-3899","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Morgan A.","family":"Jacobellis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melanie M.","family":"Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa J.","family":"Bain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Naval History and Heritage Command (2025, June 18). 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